Betty S. Anderson

A History of the Modern Middle East

Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues

• Broschiertes Buch

Produktbeschreibung

The book examines the ways that rulers, rogues, and rebels have worked together to forge modern Middle Eastern history from the rise of the Ottoman and Safavid empires.

Produktdetails

• Verlag: Stanford University Press
• Seitenzahl: 544
• Erscheinungstermin: 20. April 2016
• Englisch
• Abmessung: 180mm x 255mm x 37mm
• Gewicht: 1156g
• ISBN-13: 9780804783248
• ISBN-10: 0804783241
• Artikelnr.: 44214195

Autorenporträt

Betty S. Anderson is Professor of Middle East History at Boston University.

Inhaltsangabe

Contents and Abstracts
Prologue: Islam and the Prophet's Successors
chapter abstract
This chapter introduces the historical events surrounding the rise of
Islam, the main pillars of the faith, and the reasons behind the schism
between Sunnis and Shia. It follows the Arab armies as they moved beyond
the Arabian Peninsula and established empires led by caliphs in Damascus
(Umayyad) and Baghdad (Abbasid). During the reign of the Abbasids,
religious scholars codified Islamic law (sharia) by using reasoned
interpretations of the messages contained within the Quran and the sayings
of the Prophet. The Abbasid Empire collapsed with the Mongol invasion of
Baghdad in 1258. The topics of this chapter are referenced throughout the
book as later empires ruled over the Muslim world and as Arabs looked back
on these days as a golden age defining the beginnings of their national
identities.
1Birth of Empires: The Ottoman and Safavid Empires through the 18th Century
chapter abstract
This chapter begins with the founding stories of the Ottoman and Safavid
Empires and ends in the 18th century with the fragmentation of the former
and the destruction of the latter. The chapter analyzes the systems of
governance established in each empire because the institutions built within
them proved influential well into the 19th and 20th centuries. The Ottoman
sultans presented themselves as protectors of Sunni Islam and succeeded in
ruling over a diverse population by training slaves for political and
military positions in the halls of imperial governance and contracting with
intermediaries to govern the provinces. The Safavid shahs established Shii
Islam as the state religion and centralized an Iran that had been
politically fragmented for centuries. Both empires faced increasing
economic and military pressure from the British, French, Russians and
Austrians.
2Reform and Rebellion: The Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Qajar Iran in the
19th Century
chapter abstract
This chapter examines the reform programs initiated in the 19th century by
leaders in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and the newly established Qajar
Empire. Western-style military, educational, legal, and administrative
reforms were introduced with the hope that centralized governance could be
achieved which would be able to prevent European incursions. The Ottoman
Empire and Egypt went into debt paying for these reforms, Egypt was
colonized by Britain, and the Qajars struggled to centralize, but the
reforms within these territories had lasting effects on governance and
society. Newly trained provincial and imperial leaders gained power, and
populations were brought into direct contact with their governments through
taxation and conscription. The relationship between monarch and subject
began to transform into a relationship between state and citizen, mediated
by constitutions and the standardization and codification of law.
3Social Transformations: Workers and Nationalists in Egypt, Mount Lebanon,
and the Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century
chapter abstract
This chapter examines how populations reacted to the reforms discussed in
Chapter 2. The reforms were top-down measures introduced by shahs, sultans
and their representatives but the opportunities they created for
individuals to enter new schools, professions, and military roles catalyzed
widespread socio-economic changes unanticipated by the reforms' authors.
Rebels opposed European colonial incursions and state attempts to
centralize control. New landowners built powerful client networks,
consolidating economic and political power. Workers went on strike in
industries that had not existed in the Middle East before the middle of the
19th century. Egyptians, Arabs, Armenians, Kurds, and the peoples of the
Balkans organized national movements to gain new political rights from the
Ottoman Empire and the European colonizers.
4The Great War: Qajar Iran and the Ottoman Empire from Revolution to World
War I
chapter abstract
This chapter details the formation of Iranian and Turkish national
identities and the revolutionary movements that instituted constitutions
and parliaments in Qajar and Ottoman governments on the eve of World War I.
Newly trained soldiers, students, and professionals in the Ottoman Empire
pushed the old elites from power. In Qajar Iran, the ulama and bazaaris
rebelled alongside the new social cadres to weaken the power of the shah.
The war ended with the collapse of the empires, and new Iranian, Turkish
and Egyptian states emerged. Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Palestine, and
Transjordan became mandates under French and British rule. The British and
French created these new states with little input from the people living
within them, while also promising that the Zionist movement of Europe could
establish a national homeland in Palestine.
5State Formation and Colonial Control: Turkey, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq,
Transjordan, and Saudi Arabia in the 1920s and 1930s
chapter abstract
This chapter examines the difficulties the Iranians, Turks, British,
French, and the newly designated Syrians, Lebanese, Transjordanians, Saudi
Arabians, and Iraqis faced in establishing new states. Rebellions in Turkey
and Iran led to the formation of independent and authoritarian governments
under Reza Shah and Mustafa Kemal. In the Arab mandates, the British and
French repressed rebellions and set up local governments led by the old
notables who had performed the same function for the Ottoman Empire before
the war. The notables' authority was challenged by the new social cadres
protesting government collusion with the colonizers and the hegemony of
local elites. This chapter illustrates how difficult it was to establish
new states in the Middle East because the borders were artificial and few
new citizens were being served by their governments.
6Rebels and Rogues: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine, and Israel in the
Interwar Years
chapter abstract
This chapter analyzes how the Great Depression, in concert with the
expanded school systems, industrial bases, and militaries, politicized many
in the growing urban populations. Starting with Egypt, the chapter examines
the country's dysfunctional electoral process and its uneven economic
development. Students, workers, professionals, and military and
paramilitary units took to the streets demanding that government become
more participatory. World War II ended with the independence of the Arab
mandates. None of the protesters' demands were addressed, however, despite
the withdrawal of British and French forces. The conflict between the
Palestinians and Jews in Palestine culminated in the Arab-Israeli War of
1948 and the establishment of the state of Israel, with Israel claiming
most of Palestine, and Egypt and Jordan controlling the remainder.
7Military Coups: Politics and Violence: Iran, Turkey, and the Arab States,
1952 - 1980
chapter abstract
This chapter examines the ideologies of the most influential political
parties that emerged in this period and describes the military coups that
overturned governance throughout the region. Rebellions broke out after
WWII as students, professionals, workers, paramilitary and military units
demanded more populist and socialist policies. In the Arab countries, the
Bath and Communist parties pushed for more equitable economic structures
and independence from imperialist control. Military officers in Egypt,
Syria, and Iraq staged military coups to introduce reforms, and the kings
of Jordan and Saudi Arabia were forced to adjust their economic policies to
address citizen demands. In Turkey, years of vibrant electoral competition
were followed by short periods of military rule. The Iranian shah became
increasingly authoritarian after the US CIA helped him subdue a rising
nationalist movement.
8Cold War Battles: The Suez Crisis, Arab-Israeli Conflicts, and the
Lebanese Civil War
chapter abstract
The chapter examines the wars that emerged within the context of the Cold
War and the Arab-Israeli conflict. Starting with the Baghdad Pact, the
states of the Middle East chose sides in the Cold War, with Turkey, Iran,
Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and initially Iraq joining the United States' side
and the others trying to remain neutral but finding themselves drawn to the
Soviet side. Arabs and Israelis fought each other in the Suez Crisis of
1956, the 1967 War, and the 1973 War. Egypt made peace with Israel; the
Palestinians formed their own fedayeen units to fight Israel. The Israelis
and the Palestinians-as well as the surrounding Arab states, the US, and
the Soviet Union-all participated in the Lebanese Civil War between 1975
and 1990 in which the country's sectarian groups were pitted against each
other.
9Rulers for Life: State Construction, Consolidation, and Collapse
chapter abstract
This chapter examines how the leaders in the Middle East managed to hold
power for extended periods. They succeeded because they controlled their
country's military forces but they also had to address the needs of their
populace. States expanded the social safety nets to bring schooling, health
care, and jobs to most of the population. Constitutions, parliaments,
political parties, and elections mobilized populations for state projects
but personality cults, security organizations, and control over all aid and
state funds ensured presidential and monarchical hegemony for decades. The
only state leader to fall was the Iranian shah because he faced massive
nationwide protest against his rule. All the tools he and his colleagues
used to maintain their authority failed, and the shah's government was
replaced by a new Islamic Republic.
10Upheaval: Islamism, Invasion, and Rebellion from the 1990s into the 21st
Century
chapter abstract
This chapter examines economic and political challenges of recent years.
The 1970s witnessed a privatization process of nationalized industries in
Egypt and Turkey, and the other countries followed suit. The breakdown of
the states' social welfare nets helped catalyze rebellions against the
states, first from left-leaning students and workers and then from
religiously-oriented Sunni university and professional groups. Most
participants wanted to reform society so that people could live pious
lives. A small number were militant Islamists who wanted to forcibly
inaugurate Islamic elements. Shia and Kurds in Iraq organized to fight for
national rights, and the US invaded Iraq and Afghanistan after 9/11.
Palestinians and Israelis unsuccessfully worked toward peace.
Epilogue: Revolution, Reaction, and Civil War
chapter abstract
The 21st century witnessed massive demonstrations to overthrow longtime
government leaders, reflecting the collective mobilization that had taken
place for years within new political parties, labor unions, and social
media. However, societies also became fragmented, making sectarian
division, civil war, and conflict ever-present. Syria has become the
epicenter because the protests over authoritarian state policies that began
in 2011 evolved within only a couple of months into a countrywide civil
war. Its effects have spread throughout the region and into Europe. Groups
such as ISIS in Syria and Iraq are fighting to overthrow the foundations of
their governing bodies. Because of the civil war in Syria, the failure to
resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and dire economic conditions
across the region, millions of refugees struggle to gain access to basic
foodstuffs, jobs, health care, housing, and education. The direction from
here is uncertain.