Alexander Alex, C John Harris, Dennis A Smith

Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry

Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward

• Gebundenes Buch

Produktbeschreibung

With a focus on case studies of R&D programs in a variety of disease areas, the book highlights fundamental productivity issues the pharmaceutical industry has been facing and explores potential ways of improving research effectiveness and efficiency. * Takes a comprehensive and holistic approach to the problems and potential solutions to drug compound attrition * Tackles a problem that adds billions of dollars to drug development programs and health care costs * Guides discovery and development scientists through R&D stages, teaching requirements and reasons why drugs can fail * Discusses potential ways forward utilizing new approaches and opportunities to reduce attrition

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Produktdetails

• Verlag: John Wiley & Sons / Wiley
• Seitenzahl: 370
• Erscheinungstermin: 2. Dezember 2015
• Englisch
• Abmessung: 236mm x 155mm x 25mm
• Gewicht: 703g
• ISBN-13: 9781118679678
• ISBN-10: 1118679679
• Artikelnr.: 42964841

Autorenporträt

Alexander Alex, Dr. rer. nat., is director of Evenor Consulting and has over 20 years' experience as consultant and as director and research fellow in drug discovery in the pharmaceutical industry. C. John Harris, PhD, is the director of cjh Consultants and has a successful track record in drug discovery, research management, small company fund-raising and start-ups. Dennis A. Smith, PhD, is an independent consultant with a long track record in drug discovery and development with an emphasis on metabolism and safety. He has published four books, including Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism in Drug Design (1st and 2nd editions) and Reactive Drug Metabolites published by Wiley.

Inhaltsangabe

Contributors xiii Introduction 1 Alexander Alex C. John Harris and Dennis
A. Smith References 4 1 Attrition in Drug Discovery and Development 5 Scott
Boyer Clive Brealey and Andrew M. Davis 1.1 "The Graph" 5 1.2 The Sources
of Attrition 7 1.3 Phase II Attrition 9 1.3.1 Target Engagement 11 1.3.2
Clinical Trial Design 11 1.4 Phase III Attrition 12 1.4.1 Safety Attrition
in Phase III 14 1.5 Regulation and Attrition 17 1.6 Attrition in Phase IV
19 1.7 First in Class Best in Class and the Role of the Payer 32 1.8
Portfolio Attrition 34 1.9 "Avoiding" Attrition 36 1.9.1 Drug Combinations
and New Formulations 36 1.9.2 Biologics versus Small Molecules 37 1.9.3
Small?-Molecule Compound Quality 38 1.10 Good Attrition versus Bad
Attrition 39 1.11 Summary 40 References 42 2 Compound Attrition at the
Preclinical Phase 46 Cornelis E.C.A. Hop 2.1 Introduction: Attrition in
Drug Discovery and Development 46 2.2 Target Identification HTS and Lead
Optimization 50 2.3 Resurgence of Covalent Inhibitors 55 2.4 In Silico
Models to Enhance Lead Optimization 56 2.5 Structure?-Based and
Property?-Based Compound Design in Lead Optimization 59 2.5.1 Risks
Associated with Operating in Nondrug?-Like Space 62 2.6 Attrition Due to
ADME Reasons 64 2.6.1 Metabolism Bioactivation and Attrition 68 2.6.2 PK/PD
Modeling in Drug Discovery to Reduce Attrition 69 2.6.3 Human PK Prediction
Uncertainties 70 2.7 Attrition Due to Toxicity Reasons 72 2.8 Corporate
Culture and Nonscientific Reasons for Attrition 75 2.9 Summary 76
References 76 3 Attrition in Phase I 83 Dennis A. Smith and Thomas A.
Baillie 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 Attrition in Phase I Studies and Paucity of
Published Information 84 3.3 Drug Attrition in not FIH Phase I Studies 85
3.4 Attrition in FIH Studies Due to PK 86 3.4.1 Attrition due to
Pharmacogenetic Factors 88 3.5 Attenuation of PK failure 90 3.5.1
Preclinical Methods (In Vivo) 90 3.5.2 Preclinical Methods (In Vitro) 91
3.5.3 Phase 0 Microdose Studies in Humans 92 3.5.4 Responding to
Unfavorable PK Characteristics 94 3.6 Phase I Oncology Studies 95 3.7
Toleration and Attrition in Phase I Studies 97 3.7.1 Improving the Hepatic
Toleration of Compounds 98 3.7.2 Rare Severe Toxicity in Phase I Studies 98
3.8 Target Occupancy and Go/No?]Go Decisions to Phase II Start 99 3.9
Conclusions 102 References 102 4 Compound Attrition in Phase II/III 106
Alexander Alex C. John Harris Wilma W. Keighley and Dennis A. Smith 4.1
Introduction 106 4.2 Attrition Rates: How Have they Changed? 107 4.3 Why do
Drugs Fail in Phase II/III? Lack of Efficacy or Marginal Efficacy Leading
to Likely Commercial Failure 108 4.4 Toxicity 111 4.5 Organizational
Culture 112 4.6 Case Studies for Phase II/III Attrition 112 4.6.1
Torcetrapib 112 4.6.2 Dalcetrapib 113 4.6.3 Onartuzumab 114 4.6.4
Bapineuzumab 115 4.6.5 Gantenerumab 115 4.6.6 Solanezumab 116 4.6.7
Pomaglumetad Methionil (LY?]2140023) 116 4.6.8 Dimebon (Latrepirdine) 117
4.6.9 BMS?]986094 117 4.6.10 TC?]5214 (S?]Mecamylamine) 118 4.6.11 Olaparib
118 4.6.12 Tenidap 119 4.6.13 NNC0109?]0012 (RA) 120 4.6.14 Omapatrilat 120
4.6.15 Ximelagatran 121 4.7 Summary and Conclusions 122 References 123 5
Postmarketing Attrition 128 Dennis A. Smith 5.1 Introduction 128 5.2
On?-Target Pharmacology?-Flawed Mechanism 130 5.2.1 Alosetron 130 5.2.2
Cerivastatin 130 5.2.3 Tegaserod 133 5.3 Off?-Target Pharmacology Known
Receptor: An Issue of Selectivity 135 5.3.1 Fenfluramine and
Dexfenfluramine 135 5.3.2 Rapacuronium 136 5.3.3 Astemizole Cisapride
Grepafloxacin and Thioridazine 138 5.4 Off?-Target Pharmacology Unknown
Receptor: Idiosyncratic Toxicology 142 5.4.1 Benoxaprofen 142 5.4.2
Bromfenac 142 5.4.3 Nomifensine 143 5.4.4 Pemoline 144 5.4.5 Remoxipride
144 5.4.6 Temafloxacin 145 5.4.7 Tienilic acid 145 5.4.8 Troglitazone 146
5.4.9 Tolcapone 146 5.4.10 Trovafloxacin 147 5.4.11 Valdecoxib 148 5.4.12
Zomepirac 148 5.5 Conclusions 150 References 151 6 Influence of the
Regulatory Environment on Attrition 158 Robert T. Clay 6.1 Introduction 158
6.1.1 How the Regulatory Environment has Changed Over the Last Two Decades
159 6.1.2 Past and Current Regulatory Attitude to Risk Analysis and Risk
Management 161 6.2 Discussion 162 6.2.1 What Stops Market Approval? 162
6.2.2 Impact of Black Box Warnings 166 6.2.3 Importance and Impact of
Pharmacovigilance 167 6.2.4 Prospects of Market Withdrawals for New Drugs
168 6.2.5 What are the Challenges for the Industry Given the Current
Regulatory Environment? 173 6.2.6 Future Challenges for Both Regulators and
the Pharmaceutical Industry 174 6.3 Conclusion 175 References 176 7
Experimental Screening Strategies to Reduce Attrition Risk 180
Marie?-Claire Peakman Matthew Troutman Rosalia Gonzales and Anne Schmidt
7.1 Introduction 180 7.2 Screening Strategies in Hit Identification 183
7.2.1 Screening Strategies and Biology Space 183 7.2.2 Screening Strategies
and Chemical Space 187 7.2.3 High?-Throughput Screening Technologies 191
7.2.4 Future Directions for High?-Throughput Screening 194 7.3 Screening
Strategies in Hit Validation and Lead Optimization 194 7.4 Screening
Strategies for Optimizing PK and Safety 197 7.4.1 High?-Throughput
Optimization of PK/ADME Profiles 198 7.4.2 Early Safety Profiling 202 7.4.3
Future Directions for ADME and Safety in Lead Optimization 204 7.5 Summary
205 References 206 8 Medicinal Chemistry Strategies to Prevent Compound
Attrition 215 J. Richard Morphy 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Picking the Right
Target 216 8.3 Finding Starting Compounds 216 8.4 Compound Optimization 218
8.4.1 Drug?-Like Compounds 218 8.4.2 Structure?-Based Drug Design 219 8.4.3
The Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Compound Optimization 220 8.4.4 PK 220
8.4.5 Toxicity 222 8.5 Summary 225 References 226 9 Influence of Phenotypic
and Target?]Based Screening Strategies on Compound Attrition and Project
Choice 229 Andrew Bell Wolfgang Fecke and Christine Williams 9.1 Drug
Discovery Approaches: A Historical Perspective 229 9.1.1 Phenotypic
Screening 229 9.1.2 Target?-Based Screening 230 9.1.3 Recent Changes in
Drug Discovery Approaches 231 9.2 Current Phenotypic Screens 233 9.2.1
Definition of Phenotypic Screening 233 9.2.2 Recent Anti?-infective
Projects 233 9.2.3 Recent CNS Projects 235 9.3 Current Targeted Screening
237 9.3.1 Definition of Targeted Screening 237 9.3.2 Recent Anti?-infective
Projects 237 9.3.3 Recent CNS Projects 239 9.4 Potential Attrition Factors
241 9.4.1 Technical Doability and Hit Identification 241 9.4.2 Compound SAR
and Properties 246 9.4.3 Safety 248 9.4.4 Translation to the Clinic 250 9.5
Summary and Future Directions 252 9.5.1 Summary of Impact of Current
Approaches 252 9.5.2 Future Directions 254 9.5.3 Conclusion 255 References
255 10 In Silico Approaches to Address Compound Attrition 264 Peter Gedeck
Christian Kramer and Richard Lewis 10.1 In Silico Models Help to Alleviate
the Process of Finding Both Safe and Efficacious Drugs 264 10.2 Use of In
Silico Approaches to Reduce Attrition Risk at the Discovery Stage 265 10.3
Ligand?-Based and Structure?-Based Models 265 10.4 Data Quality 268 10.5
Predicting Model Errors 270 10.6 Molecular Properties and their Impact on
Attrition 272 10.7 Modeling of ADME Properties and their Impact of Reducing
Attrition in the Last Two Decades 275 10.8 Approaches to Modeling of Tox
276 10.9 Modeling PK and PD and Dose Prediction 276 10.10 Novel In Silico
Approaches to Reduce Attrition Risk 278 10.11 Conclusions 280 References
280 11 Current and Future Strategies for Improving Drug Discovery
Efficiency 287 Peter Mbugua Njogu and Kelly Chibale 11.1 General
Introduction 287 11.2 Scope 288 11.3 Neglected Diseases 289 11.3.1
Introduction 289 11.3.2 Control of NTDs 290 11.3.3 Drug Discovery Potential
of Neglected Diseases 290 11.4 Precompetitive Drug Discovery 292 11.4.1
Introduction 292 11.4.2 Virtual Discovery Organizations 293 11.4.3
Collaborations with Academic Laboratories 295 11.4.4 CoE and Incubators 296
11.4.5 Screening Data and Compound File Sharing 297 11.5 Exploitation of
Genomics 297 11.5.1 Introduction 297 11.5.2 Target Identification and
Validation 298 11.5.3 Target?-Based Drug Discovery 298 11.5.4 Phenotypic
Whole?-Cell Screening 301 11.5.5 Individualized Therapy and Therapies for
Special Patient Populations 302 11.6 Outsourcing Strategies 304 11.6.1
Introduction 304 11.6.2 Research Contracting in Drug Discovery 305 11.7
Multitarget Drug Design and Discovery 305 11.7.1 Introduction 305 11.7.2
Rationale for Multitargeted Drugs 306 11.7.3 Designed Multitarget Compounds
for Neglected Diseases 307 11.8 Drug Repositioning and Repurposing 315
11.8.1 Introduction 315 11.8.2 Cell Biology Approach 317 11.8.3
Exploitation of Genome Information 318 11.8.4 Compound Screening Studies
318 11.8.5 Exploitation of Coinfection Drug Efficacy 318 11.8.6 In Silico
Computational Technologies 319 11.9 Future Outlook 319 References 319 12
Impact of Investment Strategies Organizational Structure and Corporate
Environment on Attrition and Future Investment Strategies to Reduce
Attrition 329 Geoff Lawton 12.1 Attrition 329 12.2 Costs 331 12.2.1 The
Costs of Creating a New Medicine 331 12.2.2 The Costs of Not Creating a New
Medicine 332 12.3 Investment Strategies 334 12.3.1 RoI 334 12.3.2
Investment in a Portfolio of R&D Projects 335 12.3.3 Asset?-Centered
Investment 335 12.3.4 Sources of Funds 336 12.4 Business Models 337 12.4.1
FIPCO 337 12.4.2 Fully Integrated Pharmaceutical Network (FIPNET) 338
12.4.3 Venture?-Funded Biotech 339 12.4.4 Fee?-for?-Service CRO 339 12.4.5
Hybrids 339 12.4.6 Academic Institute 340 12.4.7 Social Enterprise 341 12.5
Portfolio Management 341 12.5.1 Portfolio Construction 341 12.5.2 Project
Progression 343 12.5.3 The Risk Transition Point 343 12.6 People 344 12.6.1
Motivation 344 12.6.2 Culture and Leadership 344 12.6.3 Sustainability 344
12.7 Future 345 12.7.1 Business Structures 345 12.7.2 Skilled Practitioners
347 12.7.3 Partnerships 348 12.7.4 A Personal View of the Future 349
References 351 Index 353