Anthony Sofronas
Case Histories in Vibration Analysis and Metal Fatigue for the Practicing Engineer
Anthony Sofronas
Case Histories in Vibration Analysis and Metal Fatigue for the Practicing Engineer
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This highly accessible book provides analytical methods and guidelines for solving vibration problems in industrial plants and demonstrates their practical use through case histories from the author s personal experience in the mechanical engineering industry. It takes a simple, analytical approach to the subject, placing emphasis on practical applicability over theory, and covers both fixed and rotating equipment, as well as pressure vessels. It is an ideal guide for readers with diverse experience, ranging from undergraduate students to mechanics and professional engineers.
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This highly accessible book provides analytical methods and guidelines for solving vibration problems in industrial plants and demonstrates their practical use through case histories from the author s personal experience in the mechanical engineering industry. It takes a simple, analytical approach to the subject, placing emphasis on practical applicability over theory, and covers both fixed and rotating equipment, as well as pressure vessels. It is an ideal guide for readers with diverse experience, ranging from undergraduate students to mechanics and professional engineers.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 306
- Erscheinungstermin: 19. September 2012
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 241mm x 161mm x 25mm
- Gewicht: 579g
- ISBN-13: 9781118169469
- ISBN-10: 1118169468
- Artikelnr.: 35451931
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 306
- Erscheinungstermin: 19. September 2012
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 241mm x 161mm x 25mm
- Gewicht: 579g
- ISBN-13: 9781118169469
- ISBN-10: 1118169468
- Artikelnr.: 35451931
ANTHONY SOFRONAS, DEng, PE, has spent the past forty-five years troubleshooting field failures and designing machinery for ExxonMobil, General Electric, and the Bendix Corporation. He is currently a consultant to industry, presenting seminars worldwide under the aegis of his company Engineered Products. Dr. Sofronas has published many technical papers and articles, including a bimonthly column for Hydrocarbon Processing dedicated to engineering case histories. He is also the author of Analytical Troubleshooting of Process Machinery and Pressure Vessels (Wiley).
Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 Reference 4 2 Basics of Vibration 5 2.1
Spring-Mass Systems and Resonance 5 2.2 Case History: Combining Springs and
Masses in a Steam Turbine Problem 9 2.3 Useful Questions to Ask Before
Beginning a Vibration Analysis 12 2.4 Linear Spring Constants and Area
Moments of Inertia 13 2.5 Vibrating Flat Plates 14 2.6 Two-Degree Tuned
Vibration Absorber 16 2.7 Natural Frequencies of Pipes and Beams 19 2.8
Effect of Clearance on the Natural Frequency 19 2.9 Static Deflection and
Pendulum Natural Frequency 21 2.10 Coupled Single-Mass Systems 23
References 25 3 Vibration-Measuring Methods and Limits 27 3.1 Important
Frequencies 27 3.2 Campbell Diagrams 31 3.3 Case History: Systematic
Procedure to Identify a Vibration Source 33 3.4 Vibration-Measuring Terms
34 3.5 Cascade Diagram 36 3.6 Shock Pulse Method 37 3.7 Measuring
Transducers 38 3.8 Measurements: Time-Based, Bode, and Orbit Plots 40 4
Simple Analytical Examples 45 4.1 Determining Vibration Amplitude 45 4.2
Resonant and Off-Resonant Amplitudes 47 4.3 Case History: Transmitted Force
and Isolation of a Roof Fan 49 4.4 Case History: Seal Failure Due to
Misalignment of an Agitator Shaft 51 4.5 Case History: Structural Vibration
53 4.6 Case History: Production-Line Grinding Problem 54 4.7 Case History:
Vehicle on Springs 57 4.8 Case History: Vibrating Cantilevered Components
58 4.9 Bump Test 60 4.10 Case History: Vibrating Pump Mounted on a Plate
Deck 60 4.11 Case History: Misalignment Force 62 4.12 Case History:
Vertical Pump Vibrations and Bearing Survival 64 4.13 Case History: Cause
of Mysterious Movement on a Centrifuge Deck 67 4.14 Case History: Engine
Vibration Monitoring Device 70 4.15 Case History: Natural Frequency of A
Midsupport Vertical Mixer 72 4.16 Case History: Valve Float Analysis 73
References 75 5 Vibration-Based Problems and Their Sources 77 5.1 Fatigue
Cracking 77 5.2 Fretting and Wear 79 5.3 Ball and Roller Bearing Failures
83 5.4 Bolt Loosening 84 5.5 Flow-Induced Vibration 86 5.5.1 Case History:
Stack Vibration Induced by Wind 87 5.6 Excessive Noise 88 5.7 Pressure
Pulsations 89 5.8 Mechanical Seal Chipping and Damage 90 5.9 Surging of
Fans and Other Causes of Vibration 90 5.10 Vibration Due to Beats 92 5.11
The Slip-Stick Problem 92 5.12 Drive Belt Vibration 97 References 98 6
Causes of Vibrations and Solutions in Machinery 99 6.1 Rotating Imbalance
99 6.1.1 Case History: Motor Imbalance 100 6.2 Causes of Shaft Misalignment
102 6.2.1 Types of Misalignment 102 6.2.2 Thermal Offset 102 6.2.3
Acceptable Coupling Offset and Angular Misalignment 103 6.3 A Problem in
Measuring Vibration on Large Machines 104 6.4 Causes of Pump Vibration 105
6.4.1 NPSH Problems and Cavitation 105 6.4.2 Suction Vortex 107 6.4.3 Off
Best Efficiency Point 107 6.4.4 Vertical Pump Vibration 109 6.4.5 Pump
Vibration Level Guidelines 111 6.5 Other Causes of Motor Vibration 111
6.5.1 Electrical Causes 111 6.5.2 Mechanical Cause 112 6.5.3 Motor
Vibration-Level Guidelines 112 6.6 Causes of Gearbox Vibration 113 6.6.1
Cyclic External Reaction Loads 113 6.6.2 Tooth Breakage 113 6.6.3 Gearbox
Vibration-Level Guidelines 114 6.6.4 Causes of Cooling Tower Fan System
Vibration 114 6.6.5 Complex Gearbox Vibration Spectra 115 6.7 Types of
Couplings for Alignment 116 References 120 7 Piping Vibration 121 7.1 Types
of Piping Vibration Problems 121 7.2 Vibration Screening Charts and
Allowable Limits 122 7.3 Case History: Water Hammer and Piping Impacts 123
7.4 Case History: Heat-Exchanger Tube Vibration 126 7.5 Case History:
Useful Equations In Solving a Cracked Nozzle 128 7.6 Support and Constraint
Considerations in Vibrating Services 130 7.7 Case History: Control Valve
Trim Causing Piping Vibration 130 7.8 Vibration Observed and Possible
Causes 131 7.9 Acoustical Vibration Problems 131 7.9.1 Case History:
Compressor Acoustical Vibration Analysis 133 7.9.2 Case History: Tuning
Using a Helmholz Resonator 134 7.9.3 Case History: Tuning Using Surge
Volume 135 7.10 Two-Phase Flow and Slug Flow 136 7.11 Case History: U-Tube
Heat-Exchanger Vibration 138 7.12 Crack Growth in a Flat Plate 139
References 140 8 Torsional Vibration 141 8.1 Torsional Vibration Defined
141 8.2 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Motor-Generator-Blower 143
8.3 Case History: Engine-Gearbox-Pump 144 8.4 Case History: Internal
Combustion Engine-Gearbox-Propeller 146 8.5 Case History: Effect of
Changing Firing Order On Crankshaft Stress 152 8.6 Case History: Transient
Power Surge Motor-Gearbox-Compressor 152 8.7 Case History: Vibratory Torque
on the Gear of a Ship System 155 8.8 Torsional Spring Constants and Mass
Moments of Inertia 157 8.9 Three-Mass Natural Frequency Simplification 158
8.10 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Drill String 160 8.11 Case
History: Effect of a Suddenly Applied Torsional Load 160 8.12 Sensitivity
Analysis of a Two-Mass Torsional System 162 8.13 Case History: Engine
Natural Frequency as a Continuous Shaft 163 8.14 Types of Torsionally Soft
Couplings 164 8.15 Torsional Vibration Testing 168 8.16 Case History:
Out-of-Synchronization Grid Closure 170 8.17 Operating Through a Large
Torsional Amplitude 171 8.18 Case History: Engine Mode Shape as a
Continuous Shaft 173 8.19 Holzer Method for Calculating Torsional and
Linear Multimass Systems 174 8.20 Experimental Determination of Mass Moment
of Inertia J 177 References 178 9 Turbomachinery Vibration 179 9.1 Unique
Vibration Problems of Turbomachinery 179 9.1.1 The Rotor System 180 9.2
Lateral Vibrations of a Simplified System 181 9.2.1 A Simplified Rotor
System 181 9.2.2 Compressor with High Stiffness Bearings 182 9.2.3 Critical
Speed of a Rotor on Spring Supports 183 9.3 Allowable Shaft Displacement
Guidelines 185 9.4 Compressor Surge and Rotor Vibration 185 9.5 Rigid and
Flexible Rotor Balancing 187 9.6 Case History: Checking the Critical Speed
of a Motor Rotor 190 9.7 Case History: Response of a Missing Blade on a
Steam Turbine 192 9.8 Case History: Stepped Shaft Into Equivalent Diameter
195 9.9 Case History: Two-Diameter Rotor System 196 9.10 Hydrodynamic
Bearing Stiffness 197 9.11 Rotor Dynamics of Pumps 201 References 202 10
Very Low Cycle Vibrations and Other Phenomena 203 10.1 Very Low Cycle
Vibration Defined 203 10.2 Vessels In High-Cycle Service 204 10.3 Case
History: Cracking of a Rotary Dryer 205 10.4 Phantom Failures: Some
Failures are Very Elusive 207 10.5 Case History: Troubleshooting Gear Face
Damage 208 10.6 Case History: Thermally Bowed Shaft and Vibration 210 10.7
Case History: Effect of Nonlinear Stiffness 212 10.8 Case History: Effect
of Clearance on a Vibrating System 214 10.9 Case History: Fatigue Failure
of a Crankshaft 215 10.10 Case History: Understanding Slip-Jerk During Slow
Roll 218 10.11 Case History: Predicting the Crack Growth on a Machine 219
10.12 Case History: Bolt Loosening on Counterweight Bolts 222 10.13 Case
History: Centrifuge Vibration 223 10.14 Case History: Crack Growth In a
Gear Tooth 225 10.15 Case History: Vibration of a Rotor In Its Case 227
10.16 Case History: Gearbox Input Shaft Lockup 229 10.17 Case History:
Troubleshooting a Roller Bearing Failure 231 10.18 Case History: Using
Imprints to Determine Loads 232 10.19 Case History: Extruder BlowBack 235
10.20 Case History: Vibratory and Rotational Wear 239 10.21 Two-Mass System
With Known and Unknown Displacement 241 10.22 Case History: Fiberglass
Mixing Tank Flexing Vibration 241 References 243 11 Vibration Failures 245
11.1 Why Things Fail In Vibration 245 11.2 Case History: Spring Failure 246
11.3 Case History: Spline Fretting 247 11.4 Case History: Sheet Metal
Vibration Cracking 248 11.5 Case History: Bearing Brinelling and False
Brinelling 249 11.6 Case History: Crankshaft Failure 250 11.7 Case History:
Brush Holder Wear 251 11.8 Case History: Cracking of a Vibrating Conveyor
Structure 251 11.9 Case History: Failure of a Cooling Tower Blade Arm 252
11.10 Case History: Fatigue Failures at High Cyclic Stress Areas 254 11.11
Case History: Fatigue Failure of Shafts 254 11.12 Case History: Failure of
a Steam Turbine Blade 257 11.13 Case History: Failure of a Reciprocating
Compressor Slipper 258 11.14 Case History: Multiple-Cause Gear Failure 259
11.15 Case History: Loose Bolt Failures 259 11.16 Case History: Piston
Failure in a Racing Car 262 11.17 Case History: Stop Holes For Cracks Don't
Always Work 262 11.18 Case History: Small Bearing Failure Due To Vibration
264 11.19 Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 266 References 268 12
Metal Fatigue 269 12.1 Metal Fatigue Defined 269 12.2 Reduction of a
Component's Life When Subjected to Excessive Vibration 270 12.3 Case
History: Special Case of Fatigue Potential 273 12.4 Metallurgical
Examination 274 12.5 Taking Risks and Making High-Level Presentations 275
References 277 13 Short History of Vibration 279 References 282 Index 285
Spring-Mass Systems and Resonance 5 2.2 Case History: Combining Springs and
Masses in a Steam Turbine Problem 9 2.3 Useful Questions to Ask Before
Beginning a Vibration Analysis 12 2.4 Linear Spring Constants and Area
Moments of Inertia 13 2.5 Vibrating Flat Plates 14 2.6 Two-Degree Tuned
Vibration Absorber 16 2.7 Natural Frequencies of Pipes and Beams 19 2.8
Effect of Clearance on the Natural Frequency 19 2.9 Static Deflection and
Pendulum Natural Frequency 21 2.10 Coupled Single-Mass Systems 23
References 25 3 Vibration-Measuring Methods and Limits 27 3.1 Important
Frequencies 27 3.2 Campbell Diagrams 31 3.3 Case History: Systematic
Procedure to Identify a Vibration Source 33 3.4 Vibration-Measuring Terms
34 3.5 Cascade Diagram 36 3.6 Shock Pulse Method 37 3.7 Measuring
Transducers 38 3.8 Measurements: Time-Based, Bode, and Orbit Plots 40 4
Simple Analytical Examples 45 4.1 Determining Vibration Amplitude 45 4.2
Resonant and Off-Resonant Amplitudes 47 4.3 Case History: Transmitted Force
and Isolation of a Roof Fan 49 4.4 Case History: Seal Failure Due to
Misalignment of an Agitator Shaft 51 4.5 Case History: Structural Vibration
53 4.6 Case History: Production-Line Grinding Problem 54 4.7 Case History:
Vehicle on Springs 57 4.8 Case History: Vibrating Cantilevered Components
58 4.9 Bump Test 60 4.10 Case History: Vibrating Pump Mounted on a Plate
Deck 60 4.11 Case History: Misalignment Force 62 4.12 Case History:
Vertical Pump Vibrations and Bearing Survival 64 4.13 Case History: Cause
of Mysterious Movement on a Centrifuge Deck 67 4.14 Case History: Engine
Vibration Monitoring Device 70 4.15 Case History: Natural Frequency of A
Midsupport Vertical Mixer 72 4.16 Case History: Valve Float Analysis 73
References 75 5 Vibration-Based Problems and Their Sources 77 5.1 Fatigue
Cracking 77 5.2 Fretting and Wear 79 5.3 Ball and Roller Bearing Failures
83 5.4 Bolt Loosening 84 5.5 Flow-Induced Vibration 86 5.5.1 Case History:
Stack Vibration Induced by Wind 87 5.6 Excessive Noise 88 5.7 Pressure
Pulsations 89 5.8 Mechanical Seal Chipping and Damage 90 5.9 Surging of
Fans and Other Causes of Vibration 90 5.10 Vibration Due to Beats 92 5.11
The Slip-Stick Problem 92 5.12 Drive Belt Vibration 97 References 98 6
Causes of Vibrations and Solutions in Machinery 99 6.1 Rotating Imbalance
99 6.1.1 Case History: Motor Imbalance 100 6.2 Causes of Shaft Misalignment
102 6.2.1 Types of Misalignment 102 6.2.2 Thermal Offset 102 6.2.3
Acceptable Coupling Offset and Angular Misalignment 103 6.3 A Problem in
Measuring Vibration on Large Machines 104 6.4 Causes of Pump Vibration 105
6.4.1 NPSH Problems and Cavitation 105 6.4.2 Suction Vortex 107 6.4.3 Off
Best Efficiency Point 107 6.4.4 Vertical Pump Vibration 109 6.4.5 Pump
Vibration Level Guidelines 111 6.5 Other Causes of Motor Vibration 111
6.5.1 Electrical Causes 111 6.5.2 Mechanical Cause 112 6.5.3 Motor
Vibration-Level Guidelines 112 6.6 Causes of Gearbox Vibration 113 6.6.1
Cyclic External Reaction Loads 113 6.6.2 Tooth Breakage 113 6.6.3 Gearbox
Vibration-Level Guidelines 114 6.6.4 Causes of Cooling Tower Fan System
Vibration 114 6.6.5 Complex Gearbox Vibration Spectra 115 6.7 Types of
Couplings for Alignment 116 References 120 7 Piping Vibration 121 7.1 Types
of Piping Vibration Problems 121 7.2 Vibration Screening Charts and
Allowable Limits 122 7.3 Case History: Water Hammer and Piping Impacts 123
7.4 Case History: Heat-Exchanger Tube Vibration 126 7.5 Case History:
Useful Equations In Solving a Cracked Nozzle 128 7.6 Support and Constraint
Considerations in Vibrating Services 130 7.7 Case History: Control Valve
Trim Causing Piping Vibration 130 7.8 Vibration Observed and Possible
Causes 131 7.9 Acoustical Vibration Problems 131 7.9.1 Case History:
Compressor Acoustical Vibration Analysis 133 7.9.2 Case History: Tuning
Using a Helmholz Resonator 134 7.9.3 Case History: Tuning Using Surge
Volume 135 7.10 Two-Phase Flow and Slug Flow 136 7.11 Case History: U-Tube
Heat-Exchanger Vibration 138 7.12 Crack Growth in a Flat Plate 139
References 140 8 Torsional Vibration 141 8.1 Torsional Vibration Defined
141 8.2 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Motor-Generator-Blower 143
8.3 Case History: Engine-Gearbox-Pump 144 8.4 Case History: Internal
Combustion Engine-Gearbox-Propeller 146 8.5 Case History: Effect of
Changing Firing Order On Crankshaft Stress 152 8.6 Case History: Transient
Power Surge Motor-Gearbox-Compressor 152 8.7 Case History: Vibratory Torque
on the Gear of a Ship System 155 8.8 Torsional Spring Constants and Mass
Moments of Inertia 157 8.9 Three-Mass Natural Frequency Simplification 158
8.10 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Drill String 160 8.11 Case
History: Effect of a Suddenly Applied Torsional Load 160 8.12 Sensitivity
Analysis of a Two-Mass Torsional System 162 8.13 Case History: Engine
Natural Frequency as a Continuous Shaft 163 8.14 Types of Torsionally Soft
Couplings 164 8.15 Torsional Vibration Testing 168 8.16 Case History:
Out-of-Synchronization Grid Closure 170 8.17 Operating Through a Large
Torsional Amplitude 171 8.18 Case History: Engine Mode Shape as a
Continuous Shaft 173 8.19 Holzer Method for Calculating Torsional and
Linear Multimass Systems 174 8.20 Experimental Determination of Mass Moment
of Inertia J 177 References 178 9 Turbomachinery Vibration 179 9.1 Unique
Vibration Problems of Turbomachinery 179 9.1.1 The Rotor System 180 9.2
Lateral Vibrations of a Simplified System 181 9.2.1 A Simplified Rotor
System 181 9.2.2 Compressor with High Stiffness Bearings 182 9.2.3 Critical
Speed of a Rotor on Spring Supports 183 9.3 Allowable Shaft Displacement
Guidelines 185 9.4 Compressor Surge and Rotor Vibration 185 9.5 Rigid and
Flexible Rotor Balancing 187 9.6 Case History: Checking the Critical Speed
of a Motor Rotor 190 9.7 Case History: Response of a Missing Blade on a
Steam Turbine 192 9.8 Case History: Stepped Shaft Into Equivalent Diameter
195 9.9 Case History: Two-Diameter Rotor System 196 9.10 Hydrodynamic
Bearing Stiffness 197 9.11 Rotor Dynamics of Pumps 201 References 202 10
Very Low Cycle Vibrations and Other Phenomena 203 10.1 Very Low Cycle
Vibration Defined 203 10.2 Vessels In High-Cycle Service 204 10.3 Case
History: Cracking of a Rotary Dryer 205 10.4 Phantom Failures: Some
Failures are Very Elusive 207 10.5 Case History: Troubleshooting Gear Face
Damage 208 10.6 Case History: Thermally Bowed Shaft and Vibration 210 10.7
Case History: Effect of Nonlinear Stiffness 212 10.8 Case History: Effect
of Clearance on a Vibrating System 214 10.9 Case History: Fatigue Failure
of a Crankshaft 215 10.10 Case History: Understanding Slip-Jerk During Slow
Roll 218 10.11 Case History: Predicting the Crack Growth on a Machine 219
10.12 Case History: Bolt Loosening on Counterweight Bolts 222 10.13 Case
History: Centrifuge Vibration 223 10.14 Case History: Crack Growth In a
Gear Tooth 225 10.15 Case History: Vibration of a Rotor In Its Case 227
10.16 Case History: Gearbox Input Shaft Lockup 229 10.17 Case History:
Troubleshooting a Roller Bearing Failure 231 10.18 Case History: Using
Imprints to Determine Loads 232 10.19 Case History: Extruder BlowBack 235
10.20 Case History: Vibratory and Rotational Wear 239 10.21 Two-Mass System
With Known and Unknown Displacement 241 10.22 Case History: Fiberglass
Mixing Tank Flexing Vibration 241 References 243 11 Vibration Failures 245
11.1 Why Things Fail In Vibration 245 11.2 Case History: Spring Failure 246
11.3 Case History: Spline Fretting 247 11.4 Case History: Sheet Metal
Vibration Cracking 248 11.5 Case History: Bearing Brinelling and False
Brinelling 249 11.6 Case History: Crankshaft Failure 250 11.7 Case History:
Brush Holder Wear 251 11.8 Case History: Cracking of a Vibrating Conveyor
Structure 251 11.9 Case History: Failure of a Cooling Tower Blade Arm 252
11.10 Case History: Fatigue Failures at High Cyclic Stress Areas 254 11.11
Case History: Fatigue Failure of Shafts 254 11.12 Case History: Failure of
a Steam Turbine Blade 257 11.13 Case History: Failure of a Reciprocating
Compressor Slipper 258 11.14 Case History: Multiple-Cause Gear Failure 259
11.15 Case History: Loose Bolt Failures 259 11.16 Case History: Piston
Failure in a Racing Car 262 11.17 Case History: Stop Holes For Cracks Don't
Always Work 262 11.18 Case History: Small Bearing Failure Due To Vibration
264 11.19 Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 266 References 268 12
Metal Fatigue 269 12.1 Metal Fatigue Defined 269 12.2 Reduction of a
Component's Life When Subjected to Excessive Vibration 270 12.3 Case
History: Special Case of Fatigue Potential 273 12.4 Metallurgical
Examination 274 12.5 Taking Risks and Making High-Level Presentations 275
References 277 13 Short History of Vibration 279 References 282 Index 285
Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 Reference 4 2 Basics of Vibration 5 2.1
Spring-Mass Systems and Resonance 5 2.2 Case History: Combining Springs and
Masses in a Steam Turbine Problem 9 2.3 Useful Questions to Ask Before
Beginning a Vibration Analysis 12 2.4 Linear Spring Constants and Area
Moments of Inertia 13 2.5 Vibrating Flat Plates 14 2.6 Two-Degree Tuned
Vibration Absorber 16 2.7 Natural Frequencies of Pipes and Beams 19 2.8
Effect of Clearance on the Natural Frequency 19 2.9 Static Deflection and
Pendulum Natural Frequency 21 2.10 Coupled Single-Mass Systems 23
References 25 3 Vibration-Measuring Methods and Limits 27 3.1 Important
Frequencies 27 3.2 Campbell Diagrams 31 3.3 Case History: Systematic
Procedure to Identify a Vibration Source 33 3.4 Vibration-Measuring Terms
34 3.5 Cascade Diagram 36 3.6 Shock Pulse Method 37 3.7 Measuring
Transducers 38 3.8 Measurements: Time-Based, Bode, and Orbit Plots 40 4
Simple Analytical Examples 45 4.1 Determining Vibration Amplitude 45 4.2
Resonant and Off-Resonant Amplitudes 47 4.3 Case History: Transmitted Force
and Isolation of a Roof Fan 49 4.4 Case History: Seal Failure Due to
Misalignment of an Agitator Shaft 51 4.5 Case History: Structural Vibration
53 4.6 Case History: Production-Line Grinding Problem 54 4.7 Case History:
Vehicle on Springs 57 4.8 Case History: Vibrating Cantilevered Components
58 4.9 Bump Test 60 4.10 Case History: Vibrating Pump Mounted on a Plate
Deck 60 4.11 Case History: Misalignment Force 62 4.12 Case History:
Vertical Pump Vibrations and Bearing Survival 64 4.13 Case History: Cause
of Mysterious Movement on a Centrifuge Deck 67 4.14 Case History: Engine
Vibration Monitoring Device 70 4.15 Case History: Natural Frequency of A
Midsupport Vertical Mixer 72 4.16 Case History: Valve Float Analysis 73
References 75 5 Vibration-Based Problems and Their Sources 77 5.1 Fatigue
Cracking 77 5.2 Fretting and Wear 79 5.3 Ball and Roller Bearing Failures
83 5.4 Bolt Loosening 84 5.5 Flow-Induced Vibration 86 5.5.1 Case History:
Stack Vibration Induced by Wind 87 5.6 Excessive Noise 88 5.7 Pressure
Pulsations 89 5.8 Mechanical Seal Chipping and Damage 90 5.9 Surging of
Fans and Other Causes of Vibration 90 5.10 Vibration Due to Beats 92 5.11
The Slip-Stick Problem 92 5.12 Drive Belt Vibration 97 References 98 6
Causes of Vibrations and Solutions in Machinery 99 6.1 Rotating Imbalance
99 6.1.1 Case History: Motor Imbalance 100 6.2 Causes of Shaft Misalignment
102 6.2.1 Types of Misalignment 102 6.2.2 Thermal Offset 102 6.2.3
Acceptable Coupling Offset and Angular Misalignment 103 6.3 A Problem in
Measuring Vibration on Large Machines 104 6.4 Causes of Pump Vibration 105
6.4.1 NPSH Problems and Cavitation 105 6.4.2 Suction Vortex 107 6.4.3 Off
Best Efficiency Point 107 6.4.4 Vertical Pump Vibration 109 6.4.5 Pump
Vibration Level Guidelines 111 6.5 Other Causes of Motor Vibration 111
6.5.1 Electrical Causes 111 6.5.2 Mechanical Cause 112 6.5.3 Motor
Vibration-Level Guidelines 112 6.6 Causes of Gearbox Vibration 113 6.6.1
Cyclic External Reaction Loads 113 6.6.2 Tooth Breakage 113 6.6.3 Gearbox
Vibration-Level Guidelines 114 6.6.4 Causes of Cooling Tower Fan System
Vibration 114 6.6.5 Complex Gearbox Vibration Spectra 115 6.7 Types of
Couplings for Alignment 116 References 120 7 Piping Vibration 121 7.1 Types
of Piping Vibration Problems 121 7.2 Vibration Screening Charts and
Allowable Limits 122 7.3 Case History: Water Hammer and Piping Impacts 123
7.4 Case History: Heat-Exchanger Tube Vibration 126 7.5 Case History:
Useful Equations In Solving a Cracked Nozzle 128 7.6 Support and Constraint
Considerations in Vibrating Services 130 7.7 Case History: Control Valve
Trim Causing Piping Vibration 130 7.8 Vibration Observed and Possible
Causes 131 7.9 Acoustical Vibration Problems 131 7.9.1 Case History:
Compressor Acoustical Vibration Analysis 133 7.9.2 Case History: Tuning
Using a Helmholz Resonator 134 7.9.3 Case History: Tuning Using Surge
Volume 135 7.10 Two-Phase Flow and Slug Flow 136 7.11 Case History: U-Tube
Heat-Exchanger Vibration 138 7.12 Crack Growth in a Flat Plate 139
References 140 8 Torsional Vibration 141 8.1 Torsional Vibration Defined
141 8.2 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Motor-Generator-Blower 143
8.3 Case History: Engine-Gearbox-Pump 144 8.4 Case History: Internal
Combustion Engine-Gearbox-Propeller 146 8.5 Case History: Effect of
Changing Firing Order On Crankshaft Stress 152 8.6 Case History: Transient
Power Surge Motor-Gearbox-Compressor 152 8.7 Case History: Vibratory Torque
on the Gear of a Ship System 155 8.8 Torsional Spring Constants and Mass
Moments of Inertia 157 8.9 Three-Mass Natural Frequency Simplification 158
8.10 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Drill String 160 8.11 Case
History: Effect of a Suddenly Applied Torsional Load 160 8.12 Sensitivity
Analysis of a Two-Mass Torsional System 162 8.13 Case History: Engine
Natural Frequency as a Continuous Shaft 163 8.14 Types of Torsionally Soft
Couplings 164 8.15 Torsional Vibration Testing 168 8.16 Case History:
Out-of-Synchronization Grid Closure 170 8.17 Operating Through a Large
Torsional Amplitude 171 8.18 Case History: Engine Mode Shape as a
Continuous Shaft 173 8.19 Holzer Method for Calculating Torsional and
Linear Multimass Systems 174 8.20 Experimental Determination of Mass Moment
of Inertia J 177 References 178 9 Turbomachinery Vibration 179 9.1 Unique
Vibration Problems of Turbomachinery 179 9.1.1 The Rotor System 180 9.2
Lateral Vibrations of a Simplified System 181 9.2.1 A Simplified Rotor
System 181 9.2.2 Compressor with High Stiffness Bearings 182 9.2.3 Critical
Speed of a Rotor on Spring Supports 183 9.3 Allowable Shaft Displacement
Guidelines 185 9.4 Compressor Surge and Rotor Vibration 185 9.5 Rigid and
Flexible Rotor Balancing 187 9.6 Case History: Checking the Critical Speed
of a Motor Rotor 190 9.7 Case History: Response of a Missing Blade on a
Steam Turbine 192 9.8 Case History: Stepped Shaft Into Equivalent Diameter
195 9.9 Case History: Two-Diameter Rotor System 196 9.10 Hydrodynamic
Bearing Stiffness 197 9.11 Rotor Dynamics of Pumps 201 References 202 10
Very Low Cycle Vibrations and Other Phenomena 203 10.1 Very Low Cycle
Vibration Defined 203 10.2 Vessels In High-Cycle Service 204 10.3 Case
History: Cracking of a Rotary Dryer 205 10.4 Phantom Failures: Some
Failures are Very Elusive 207 10.5 Case History: Troubleshooting Gear Face
Damage 208 10.6 Case History: Thermally Bowed Shaft and Vibration 210 10.7
Case History: Effect of Nonlinear Stiffness 212 10.8 Case History: Effect
of Clearance on a Vibrating System 214 10.9 Case History: Fatigue Failure
of a Crankshaft 215 10.10 Case History: Understanding Slip-Jerk During Slow
Roll 218 10.11 Case History: Predicting the Crack Growth on a Machine 219
10.12 Case History: Bolt Loosening on Counterweight Bolts 222 10.13 Case
History: Centrifuge Vibration 223 10.14 Case History: Crack Growth In a
Gear Tooth 225 10.15 Case History: Vibration of a Rotor In Its Case 227
10.16 Case History: Gearbox Input Shaft Lockup 229 10.17 Case History:
Troubleshooting a Roller Bearing Failure 231 10.18 Case History: Using
Imprints to Determine Loads 232 10.19 Case History: Extruder BlowBack 235
10.20 Case History: Vibratory and Rotational Wear 239 10.21 Two-Mass System
With Known and Unknown Displacement 241 10.22 Case History: Fiberglass
Mixing Tank Flexing Vibration 241 References 243 11 Vibration Failures 245
11.1 Why Things Fail In Vibration 245 11.2 Case History: Spring Failure 246
11.3 Case History: Spline Fretting 247 11.4 Case History: Sheet Metal
Vibration Cracking 248 11.5 Case History: Bearing Brinelling and False
Brinelling 249 11.6 Case History: Crankshaft Failure 250 11.7 Case History:
Brush Holder Wear 251 11.8 Case History: Cracking of a Vibrating Conveyor
Structure 251 11.9 Case History: Failure of a Cooling Tower Blade Arm 252
11.10 Case History: Fatigue Failures at High Cyclic Stress Areas 254 11.11
Case History: Fatigue Failure of Shafts 254 11.12 Case History: Failure of
a Steam Turbine Blade 257 11.13 Case History: Failure of a Reciprocating
Compressor Slipper 258 11.14 Case History: Multiple-Cause Gear Failure 259
11.15 Case History: Loose Bolt Failures 259 11.16 Case History: Piston
Failure in a Racing Car 262 11.17 Case History: Stop Holes For Cracks Don't
Always Work 262 11.18 Case History: Small Bearing Failure Due To Vibration
264 11.19 Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 266 References 268 12
Metal Fatigue 269 12.1 Metal Fatigue Defined 269 12.2 Reduction of a
Component's Life When Subjected to Excessive Vibration 270 12.3 Case
History: Special Case of Fatigue Potential 273 12.4 Metallurgical
Examination 274 12.5 Taking Risks and Making High-Level Presentations 275
References 277 13 Short History of Vibration 279 References 282 Index 285
Spring-Mass Systems and Resonance 5 2.2 Case History: Combining Springs and
Masses in a Steam Turbine Problem 9 2.3 Useful Questions to Ask Before
Beginning a Vibration Analysis 12 2.4 Linear Spring Constants and Area
Moments of Inertia 13 2.5 Vibrating Flat Plates 14 2.6 Two-Degree Tuned
Vibration Absorber 16 2.7 Natural Frequencies of Pipes and Beams 19 2.8
Effect of Clearance on the Natural Frequency 19 2.9 Static Deflection and
Pendulum Natural Frequency 21 2.10 Coupled Single-Mass Systems 23
References 25 3 Vibration-Measuring Methods and Limits 27 3.1 Important
Frequencies 27 3.2 Campbell Diagrams 31 3.3 Case History: Systematic
Procedure to Identify a Vibration Source 33 3.4 Vibration-Measuring Terms
34 3.5 Cascade Diagram 36 3.6 Shock Pulse Method 37 3.7 Measuring
Transducers 38 3.8 Measurements: Time-Based, Bode, and Orbit Plots 40 4
Simple Analytical Examples 45 4.1 Determining Vibration Amplitude 45 4.2
Resonant and Off-Resonant Amplitudes 47 4.3 Case History: Transmitted Force
and Isolation of a Roof Fan 49 4.4 Case History: Seal Failure Due to
Misalignment of an Agitator Shaft 51 4.5 Case History: Structural Vibration
53 4.6 Case History: Production-Line Grinding Problem 54 4.7 Case History:
Vehicle on Springs 57 4.8 Case History: Vibrating Cantilevered Components
58 4.9 Bump Test 60 4.10 Case History: Vibrating Pump Mounted on a Plate
Deck 60 4.11 Case History: Misalignment Force 62 4.12 Case History:
Vertical Pump Vibrations and Bearing Survival 64 4.13 Case History: Cause
of Mysterious Movement on a Centrifuge Deck 67 4.14 Case History: Engine
Vibration Monitoring Device 70 4.15 Case History: Natural Frequency of A
Midsupport Vertical Mixer 72 4.16 Case History: Valve Float Analysis 73
References 75 5 Vibration-Based Problems and Their Sources 77 5.1 Fatigue
Cracking 77 5.2 Fretting and Wear 79 5.3 Ball and Roller Bearing Failures
83 5.4 Bolt Loosening 84 5.5 Flow-Induced Vibration 86 5.5.1 Case History:
Stack Vibration Induced by Wind 87 5.6 Excessive Noise 88 5.7 Pressure
Pulsations 89 5.8 Mechanical Seal Chipping and Damage 90 5.9 Surging of
Fans and Other Causes of Vibration 90 5.10 Vibration Due to Beats 92 5.11
The Slip-Stick Problem 92 5.12 Drive Belt Vibration 97 References 98 6
Causes of Vibrations and Solutions in Machinery 99 6.1 Rotating Imbalance
99 6.1.1 Case History: Motor Imbalance 100 6.2 Causes of Shaft Misalignment
102 6.2.1 Types of Misalignment 102 6.2.2 Thermal Offset 102 6.2.3
Acceptable Coupling Offset and Angular Misalignment 103 6.3 A Problem in
Measuring Vibration on Large Machines 104 6.4 Causes of Pump Vibration 105
6.4.1 NPSH Problems and Cavitation 105 6.4.2 Suction Vortex 107 6.4.3 Off
Best Efficiency Point 107 6.4.4 Vertical Pump Vibration 109 6.4.5 Pump
Vibration Level Guidelines 111 6.5 Other Causes of Motor Vibration 111
6.5.1 Electrical Causes 111 6.5.2 Mechanical Cause 112 6.5.3 Motor
Vibration-Level Guidelines 112 6.6 Causes of Gearbox Vibration 113 6.6.1
Cyclic External Reaction Loads 113 6.6.2 Tooth Breakage 113 6.6.3 Gearbox
Vibration-Level Guidelines 114 6.6.4 Causes of Cooling Tower Fan System
Vibration 114 6.6.5 Complex Gearbox Vibration Spectra 115 6.7 Types of
Couplings for Alignment 116 References 120 7 Piping Vibration 121 7.1 Types
of Piping Vibration Problems 121 7.2 Vibration Screening Charts and
Allowable Limits 122 7.3 Case History: Water Hammer and Piping Impacts 123
7.4 Case History: Heat-Exchanger Tube Vibration 126 7.5 Case History:
Useful Equations In Solving a Cracked Nozzle 128 7.6 Support and Constraint
Considerations in Vibrating Services 130 7.7 Case History: Control Valve
Trim Causing Piping Vibration 130 7.8 Vibration Observed and Possible
Causes 131 7.9 Acoustical Vibration Problems 131 7.9.1 Case History:
Compressor Acoustical Vibration Analysis 133 7.9.2 Case History: Tuning
Using a Helmholz Resonator 134 7.9.3 Case History: Tuning Using Surge
Volume 135 7.10 Two-Phase Flow and Slug Flow 136 7.11 Case History: U-Tube
Heat-Exchanger Vibration 138 7.12 Crack Growth in a Flat Plate 139
References 140 8 Torsional Vibration 141 8.1 Torsional Vibration Defined
141 8.2 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Motor-Generator-Blower 143
8.3 Case History: Engine-Gearbox-Pump 144 8.4 Case History: Internal
Combustion Engine-Gearbox-Propeller 146 8.5 Case History: Effect of
Changing Firing Order On Crankshaft Stress 152 8.6 Case History: Transient
Power Surge Motor-Gearbox-Compressor 152 8.7 Case History: Vibratory Torque
on the Gear of a Ship System 155 8.8 Torsional Spring Constants and Mass
Moments of Inertia 157 8.9 Three-Mass Natural Frequency Simplification 158
8.10 Case History: Torsional Vibration of a Drill String 160 8.11 Case
History: Effect of a Suddenly Applied Torsional Load 160 8.12 Sensitivity
Analysis of a Two-Mass Torsional System 162 8.13 Case History: Engine
Natural Frequency as a Continuous Shaft 163 8.14 Types of Torsionally Soft
Couplings 164 8.15 Torsional Vibration Testing 168 8.16 Case History:
Out-of-Synchronization Grid Closure 170 8.17 Operating Through a Large
Torsional Amplitude 171 8.18 Case History: Engine Mode Shape as a
Continuous Shaft 173 8.19 Holzer Method for Calculating Torsional and
Linear Multimass Systems 174 8.20 Experimental Determination of Mass Moment
of Inertia J 177 References 178 9 Turbomachinery Vibration 179 9.1 Unique
Vibration Problems of Turbomachinery 179 9.1.1 The Rotor System 180 9.2
Lateral Vibrations of a Simplified System 181 9.2.1 A Simplified Rotor
System 181 9.2.2 Compressor with High Stiffness Bearings 182 9.2.3 Critical
Speed of a Rotor on Spring Supports 183 9.3 Allowable Shaft Displacement
Guidelines 185 9.4 Compressor Surge and Rotor Vibration 185 9.5 Rigid and
Flexible Rotor Balancing 187 9.6 Case History: Checking the Critical Speed
of a Motor Rotor 190 9.7 Case History: Response of a Missing Blade on a
Steam Turbine 192 9.8 Case History: Stepped Shaft Into Equivalent Diameter
195 9.9 Case History: Two-Diameter Rotor System 196 9.10 Hydrodynamic
Bearing Stiffness 197 9.11 Rotor Dynamics of Pumps 201 References 202 10
Very Low Cycle Vibrations and Other Phenomena 203 10.1 Very Low Cycle
Vibration Defined 203 10.2 Vessels In High-Cycle Service 204 10.3 Case
History: Cracking of a Rotary Dryer 205 10.4 Phantom Failures: Some
Failures are Very Elusive 207 10.5 Case History: Troubleshooting Gear Face
Damage 208 10.6 Case History: Thermally Bowed Shaft and Vibration 210 10.7
Case History: Effect of Nonlinear Stiffness 212 10.8 Case History: Effect
of Clearance on a Vibrating System 214 10.9 Case History: Fatigue Failure
of a Crankshaft 215 10.10 Case History: Understanding Slip-Jerk During Slow
Roll 218 10.11 Case History: Predicting the Crack Growth on a Machine 219
10.12 Case History: Bolt Loosening on Counterweight Bolts 222 10.13 Case
History: Centrifuge Vibration 223 10.14 Case History: Crack Growth In a
Gear Tooth 225 10.15 Case History: Vibration of a Rotor In Its Case 227
10.16 Case History: Gearbox Input Shaft Lockup 229 10.17 Case History:
Troubleshooting a Roller Bearing Failure 231 10.18 Case History: Using
Imprints to Determine Loads 232 10.19 Case History: Extruder BlowBack 235
10.20 Case History: Vibratory and Rotational Wear 239 10.21 Two-Mass System
With Known and Unknown Displacement 241 10.22 Case History: Fiberglass
Mixing Tank Flexing Vibration 241 References 243 11 Vibration Failures 245
11.1 Why Things Fail In Vibration 245 11.2 Case History: Spring Failure 246
11.3 Case History: Spline Fretting 247 11.4 Case History: Sheet Metal
Vibration Cracking 248 11.5 Case History: Bearing Brinelling and False
Brinelling 249 11.6 Case History: Crankshaft Failure 250 11.7 Case History:
Brush Holder Wear 251 11.8 Case History: Cracking of a Vibrating Conveyor
Structure 251 11.9 Case History: Failure of a Cooling Tower Blade Arm 252
11.10 Case History: Fatigue Failures at High Cyclic Stress Areas 254 11.11
Case History: Fatigue Failure of Shafts 254 11.12 Case History: Failure of
a Steam Turbine Blade 257 11.13 Case History: Failure of a Reciprocating
Compressor Slipper 258 11.14 Case History: Multiple-Cause Gear Failure 259
11.15 Case History: Loose Bolt Failures 259 11.16 Case History: Piston
Failure in a Racing Car 262 11.17 Case History: Stop Holes For Cracks Don't
Always Work 262 11.18 Case History: Small Bearing Failure Due To Vibration
264 11.19 Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 266 References 268 12
Metal Fatigue 269 12.1 Metal Fatigue Defined 269 12.2 Reduction of a
Component's Life When Subjected to Excessive Vibration 270 12.3 Case
History: Special Case of Fatigue Potential 273 12.4 Metallurgical
Examination 274 12.5 Taking Risks and Making High-Level Presentations 275
References 277 13 Short History of Vibration 279 References 282 Index 285