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There is need in environmental research for a book on fresh waters including rivers and lakes. Compared with other books on the topic, this book has a unique outline in that it follows pollution from sources to impact. Included in the text is the treatment of various tracers, ranging from pathogens to stable isotopes of elements and providing a comprehensive discussion which is lacking in many other books on pollution control of natural waters. Geophysical processes are discussed emphasizing mixing of water, interaction between water and the atmosphere, and sedimentation processes. Important…mehr
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There is need in environmental research for a book on fresh waters including rivers and lakes. Compared with other books on the topic, this book has a unique outline in that it follows pollution from sources to impact. Included in the text is the treatment of various tracers, ranging from pathogens to stable isotopes of elements and providing a comprehensive discussion which is lacking in many other books on pollution control of natural waters. Geophysical processes are discussed emphasizing mixing of water, interaction between water and the atmosphere, and sedimentation processes. Important geochemistry processes occurring in natural waters are described as are the processes specific to nutrients, organic pollutants, metals, and pathogens in subsequent chapters. Each of these chapters includes an introduction on the selected groups, followed by the physicochemical properties which are the most relevant to their behavior in natural waters, and the theories and models to describe their speciation, transport and transformation. The book also includes the most up to date information including a discussion on emerging pollutants such as brominated and phosphate flame retardants, perflurochemicals, and pharmaceutical and personal care products. Due to its importance an ecotoxicology chapter has been included featuring molecular biological methods, nanoparticles, and comparison of the basis of biotic ligand model with the Weibull dose-response model. Finally, the last chapter briefly summarizes the regulations on ambient water quality.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 448
- Erscheinungstermin: 15. September 2014
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 240mm x 161mm x 29mm
- Gewicht: 836g
- ISBN-13: 9781118111765
- ISBN-10: 1118111761
- Artikelnr.: 41253594
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 448
- Erscheinungstermin: 15. September 2014
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 240mm x 161mm x 29mm
- Gewicht: 836g
- ISBN-13: 9781118111765
- ISBN-10: 1118111761
- Artikelnr.: 41253594
Erik R. Christensen is a UWM Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the College of Engineering and Applied Science of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. In 2008 he was nominated by UWM for Wisconsin Distinguished Professorship. He has published >80 journal articles, one book chapter, and edited a book: Contaminated Aquatic Sediments (1993), based on an international conference. He is an associate editor and frequent reviewer for many journals. An Li is a professor of environmental chemistry in the School of Public Health at the University of Illinois at Chicago. She has written four book chapters, edited one book: Persistent Organic Pollutants in Asia (2007) and produced numerous journal articles as well as providing book and journal reviews.
Preface xi 1 TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS 1 1.1 Introduction
1 1.2 Advection-Diffusion Equation with Reaction
2 1.3 Steady-State Mixing in Estuaries
4 1.3.1 Determination of Diffusivity D from Salinity Measurements
5 1.3.2 Pollutant Prediction for an Estuary with Uniform Discharge
5 1.3.3 Salinity in an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
8 1.3.4 Conservative Pollutant Prediction for an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
9 1.4 Time-Dependent Mixing in Rivers and Soil Systems
10 1.5 Vertical Mixing
14 1.5.1 The Radon Method
16 1.5.2 The Tritium-helium-3 Method
17 1.5.3 Evaluation of Mixing Based on Density Gradients
19 1.6 Hydrodynamic Models
20 1.7 Groundwater Plumes
22 1.8 Sediment Mixing
23 References
25 2 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES 28 2.1 Introduction
28 2.2 210Pb Dating of Sediments
29 2.2.1 Measurement of 210Pb Activity
30 2.2.2 210Pb Activity Profiles
33 2.3 137Cs and 239+240Pu Dating of Sediments
38 2.4 Dated Records of Metals and Organic Pollutants
42 2.5 Deconvolution of Sedimentary Records
49 2.6 Chemical and Biological Degradation
55 2.7 Sediments as a Source of Pollutants
56 2.7.1 Phosphorus
57 2.7.2 Metals
57 2.7.3 Acid-volatile Sulfides
58 2.7.4 Organics
59 References
60 3 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 65 3.1 Introduction
65 3.2 Atmospheric Deposition Processes
66 3.2.1 Gaseous vs. Particulate Chemicals in the Atmosphere
66 3.2.2 Dry Deposition with Aerosols
68 3.2.3 Wet Deposition
75 3.2.4 Gas Exchange
78 3.3 Deposition and Gas Exchange of Organic Contaminants
84 3.4 Marine and Freshwater Microlayers
87 3.5 Case Study: Emission of VOCs from Wastewater Treatment Plants
89 3.6 The Fugacity Model
93 3.6.1 Fugacity Definitions and Basic Equations
94 3.6.2 Levels of Complexity
101 3.6.3 Example Calculations - Chlorobenzene
103 References
108 4 WATER CHEMISTRY 113 4.1 Introduction
113 4.2 Carbonate and Alkalinity
115 4.2.1 Dissolved CO2 and Carbonate Speciation in Water
115 4.2.2 Solving Equilibrium pH
117 4.2.3 Alkalinity
120 4.2.4 Buffer Index
124 4.3 Sulfur Chemistry
127 4.3.1 Sulfur Redox Reactions in Water
128 4.3.2 Sulfur in Sediment
132 4.3.3 Acid Rain
133 4.4 Impact of Global Warming on Natural Waters
135 References
136 5 NUTRIENTS 138 5.1 Introduction
138 5.2 Input of Nutrients and Acidity
140 5.3 Eutrophication
143 5.3.1 Eutrophication Control
148 5.3.2 Harmful Algal Blooms
149 5.3.3 Cladophora
155 5.4 Nitrogen
156 5.4.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
156 5.4.2 Nitrification and Denitrification
159 5.4.3 N Removal
166 5.5 Phosphorus
169 5.5.1 The Phosphorus Cycle
169 5.5.2 P Removal
170 5.5.3 Case Study: Phosphorus from Wastewater Treatment
Stormwater
and Rivers in Milwaukee
Wisconsin
172 5.6 Vitamins and Trace Metals
173 References
180 6 METALS 185 6.1 Introduction
185 6.2 Trends
Measurement
and Toxicity
186 6.3 Major Sources and Reactions of Metals in Water
193 6.3.1 Atmospheric Deposition of Metals
193 6.3.2 Hydration
Hydrolysis
and Complex Formation
196 6.3.3 Dissolution of Metals from Minerals
201 6.4 Behavior of Selected Metals in Water
203 6.4.1 Mercury
203 6.4.2 Zinc and Cadmium
204 6.4.3 Arsenic
207 6.5 Zero-Valent Iron in Remediation of Contaminated Water
209 6.5.1 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
209 6.5.2 Reduction of Uranium Carbonate
Chromate
and Arsenate
214 References
215 7 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 220 7.1 Introduction
220 7.2 Important Organic Pollutant Groups
221 7.2.1 Petrochemicals and Industrial Solvents
221 7.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
223 7.2.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
223 7.2.4 Polyhalogenated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs)
226 7.2.5 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and other Flame Retardants
226 7.2.6 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
232 7.2.7 Other Pesticides
236 7.2.8 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)
239 7.2.9 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and other Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs)
240 7.3 Descriptors of Organic Molecules
243 7.4 Basic Physicochemical Properties
245 7.4.1 Vapor Pressure
246 7.4.2 Aqueous Solubility
247 7.4.3 Henry's Law Constant
248 7.4.4 Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient
248 7.4.5 Air-Octanol Partition Coefficient
249 7.5 Distribution of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Environment
249 7.5.1 Air-Water
250 7.5.2 Water-Sediment
250 7.5.3 Water-Biota and Sediment-Biota
251 7.6 Transformations in Water
252 7.6.1 Hydrolysis
253 7.6.2 Photochemical Degradation
255 7.6.3 Biological Degradation
257 7.6.4 Case Study: Transformation of PBDEs in the Environment
259 References
261 8 PATHOGENS 268 8.1 Introduction
268 8.2 Bacteria
271 8.3 Protozoa
272 8.3.1 Cryptosporidium
273 8.4 Molecular Techniques for Detection of Pathogens
276 8.4.1 Water
276 8.4.2 Biosolids
277 8.5 Pathogen Indicator Organisms and Surrogates
277 8.5.1 Bacillus Subtilis
280 8.5.2 E. Coli and Fecal Coliforms
280 8.6 Bacterial Contamination of Recreational Waters
281 8.6.1 Modeling
283 8.6.2 Beaches
286 8.6.3 Recreational Pools
287 8.7 Pathogen Removal in Water and Wastewater Treatment
288 8.7.1 Water
288 8.7.2 Wastewater and Solid Waste
289 8.7.3 Inactivation Kinetics
290 References
295 9 TRACERS 298 9.1 Introduction
298 9.2 Natural vs. Artificial Tracers
299 9.3 Radioisotopes
300 9.4 Stable Isotopes
301 9.5 Applications of Tracer Technology
305 9.5.1 Stable Isotope Tracers
305 9.5.2 N and O Stable Isotopic Compositions of Nitrate Sources
309 9.5.3 Other Physical and Chemical Tracers
310 9.5.4 Molecular-Based Biological Tracers
314 9.6 Chemical Mass Balance Modeling
315 9.6.1 CMB Model for PAHs in Kinnickinnic River
Wisconsin
316 9.7 Factor Analysis
320 9.7.1 Non-negative Constraints Matrix Factorization
322 9.7.2 Positive Matrix Factorization
331 9.7.3 Unmix
335 References
341 10 ECOTOXICOLOGY 347 10.1 Introduction
347 10.2 Bioassays
349 10.2.1 Fish
350 10.2.2 Algae
350 10.2.3 Daphnia
351 10.3 Molecular Biology Tools
353 10.3.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
353 10.3.2 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
354 10.3.3 Gene Expression
354 10.3.4 Biomarkers
355 10.4 Human Health
357 10.4.1 Fisheries Advisories
357 10.4.2 Mercury
358 10.4.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
358 10.5 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
359 10.6 Types of Toxicity
360 10.6.1 Disinfection Byproducts
361 10.6.2 Detoxification and Degradation
361 10.6.3 Antibiotics
362 10.6.4 Nanomaterials
363 10.7 Models and Toxicity Tests
364 10.7.1 Dose-Response Models for Single Toxicants
364 10.7.2 Dose-Response Models for Multiple Toxicants
369 10.7.3 Pulsed Toxicity Tests
374 10.7.4 Chronic Toxicity Tests
375 10.8 Quality Criteria
376 10.8.1 Sediment Quality Criteria
376 10.8.2 Water Quality Criteria
381 10.8.3 Total Maximum Daily Loads
381 References
383 11 AMBIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA 389 11.1 Introduction
389 11.2 A Primer on Ambient Water Quality Regulations
390 11.3 Current US Water Quality Criteria
391 11.3.1 Aquatic Life Criteria
402 11.3.2 Human Health Criteria
403 11.3.3 Organoleptic Effects
404 11.4 Water Quality Databases
404 APPENDIX 11.A Footnote for Table 11.1
405 APPENDIX 11.B Footnote for Table 11.2
408 APPENDIX 11.C Additional Notes
410 References
412 Index 415
1 1.2 Advection-Diffusion Equation with Reaction
2 1.3 Steady-State Mixing in Estuaries
4 1.3.1 Determination of Diffusivity D from Salinity Measurements
5 1.3.2 Pollutant Prediction for an Estuary with Uniform Discharge
5 1.3.3 Salinity in an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
8 1.3.4 Conservative Pollutant Prediction for an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
9 1.4 Time-Dependent Mixing in Rivers and Soil Systems
10 1.5 Vertical Mixing
14 1.5.1 The Radon Method
16 1.5.2 The Tritium-helium-3 Method
17 1.5.3 Evaluation of Mixing Based on Density Gradients
19 1.6 Hydrodynamic Models
20 1.7 Groundwater Plumes
22 1.8 Sediment Mixing
23 References
25 2 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES 28 2.1 Introduction
28 2.2 210Pb Dating of Sediments
29 2.2.1 Measurement of 210Pb Activity
30 2.2.2 210Pb Activity Profiles
33 2.3 137Cs and 239+240Pu Dating of Sediments
38 2.4 Dated Records of Metals and Organic Pollutants
42 2.5 Deconvolution of Sedimentary Records
49 2.6 Chemical and Biological Degradation
55 2.7 Sediments as a Source of Pollutants
56 2.7.1 Phosphorus
57 2.7.2 Metals
57 2.7.3 Acid-volatile Sulfides
58 2.7.4 Organics
59 References
60 3 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 65 3.1 Introduction
65 3.2 Atmospheric Deposition Processes
66 3.2.1 Gaseous vs. Particulate Chemicals in the Atmosphere
66 3.2.2 Dry Deposition with Aerosols
68 3.2.3 Wet Deposition
75 3.2.4 Gas Exchange
78 3.3 Deposition and Gas Exchange of Organic Contaminants
84 3.4 Marine and Freshwater Microlayers
87 3.5 Case Study: Emission of VOCs from Wastewater Treatment Plants
89 3.6 The Fugacity Model
93 3.6.1 Fugacity Definitions and Basic Equations
94 3.6.2 Levels of Complexity
101 3.6.3 Example Calculations - Chlorobenzene
103 References
108 4 WATER CHEMISTRY 113 4.1 Introduction
113 4.2 Carbonate and Alkalinity
115 4.2.1 Dissolved CO2 and Carbonate Speciation in Water
115 4.2.2 Solving Equilibrium pH
117 4.2.3 Alkalinity
120 4.2.4 Buffer Index
124 4.3 Sulfur Chemistry
127 4.3.1 Sulfur Redox Reactions in Water
128 4.3.2 Sulfur in Sediment
132 4.3.3 Acid Rain
133 4.4 Impact of Global Warming on Natural Waters
135 References
136 5 NUTRIENTS 138 5.1 Introduction
138 5.2 Input of Nutrients and Acidity
140 5.3 Eutrophication
143 5.3.1 Eutrophication Control
148 5.3.2 Harmful Algal Blooms
149 5.3.3 Cladophora
155 5.4 Nitrogen
156 5.4.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
156 5.4.2 Nitrification and Denitrification
159 5.4.3 N Removal
166 5.5 Phosphorus
169 5.5.1 The Phosphorus Cycle
169 5.5.2 P Removal
170 5.5.3 Case Study: Phosphorus from Wastewater Treatment
Stormwater
and Rivers in Milwaukee
Wisconsin
172 5.6 Vitamins and Trace Metals
173 References
180 6 METALS 185 6.1 Introduction
185 6.2 Trends
Measurement
and Toxicity
186 6.3 Major Sources and Reactions of Metals in Water
193 6.3.1 Atmospheric Deposition of Metals
193 6.3.2 Hydration
Hydrolysis
and Complex Formation
196 6.3.3 Dissolution of Metals from Minerals
201 6.4 Behavior of Selected Metals in Water
203 6.4.1 Mercury
203 6.4.2 Zinc and Cadmium
204 6.4.3 Arsenic
207 6.5 Zero-Valent Iron in Remediation of Contaminated Water
209 6.5.1 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
209 6.5.2 Reduction of Uranium Carbonate
Chromate
and Arsenate
214 References
215 7 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 220 7.1 Introduction
220 7.2 Important Organic Pollutant Groups
221 7.2.1 Petrochemicals and Industrial Solvents
221 7.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
223 7.2.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
223 7.2.4 Polyhalogenated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs)
226 7.2.5 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and other Flame Retardants
226 7.2.6 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
232 7.2.7 Other Pesticides
236 7.2.8 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)
239 7.2.9 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and other Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs)
240 7.3 Descriptors of Organic Molecules
243 7.4 Basic Physicochemical Properties
245 7.4.1 Vapor Pressure
246 7.4.2 Aqueous Solubility
247 7.4.3 Henry's Law Constant
248 7.4.4 Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient
248 7.4.5 Air-Octanol Partition Coefficient
249 7.5 Distribution of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Environment
249 7.5.1 Air-Water
250 7.5.2 Water-Sediment
250 7.5.3 Water-Biota and Sediment-Biota
251 7.6 Transformations in Water
252 7.6.1 Hydrolysis
253 7.6.2 Photochemical Degradation
255 7.6.3 Biological Degradation
257 7.6.4 Case Study: Transformation of PBDEs in the Environment
259 References
261 8 PATHOGENS 268 8.1 Introduction
268 8.2 Bacteria
271 8.3 Protozoa
272 8.3.1 Cryptosporidium
273 8.4 Molecular Techniques for Detection of Pathogens
276 8.4.1 Water
276 8.4.2 Biosolids
277 8.5 Pathogen Indicator Organisms and Surrogates
277 8.5.1 Bacillus Subtilis
280 8.5.2 E. Coli and Fecal Coliforms
280 8.6 Bacterial Contamination of Recreational Waters
281 8.6.1 Modeling
283 8.6.2 Beaches
286 8.6.3 Recreational Pools
287 8.7 Pathogen Removal in Water and Wastewater Treatment
288 8.7.1 Water
288 8.7.2 Wastewater and Solid Waste
289 8.7.3 Inactivation Kinetics
290 References
295 9 TRACERS 298 9.1 Introduction
298 9.2 Natural vs. Artificial Tracers
299 9.3 Radioisotopes
300 9.4 Stable Isotopes
301 9.5 Applications of Tracer Technology
305 9.5.1 Stable Isotope Tracers
305 9.5.2 N and O Stable Isotopic Compositions of Nitrate Sources
309 9.5.3 Other Physical and Chemical Tracers
310 9.5.4 Molecular-Based Biological Tracers
314 9.6 Chemical Mass Balance Modeling
315 9.6.1 CMB Model for PAHs in Kinnickinnic River
Wisconsin
316 9.7 Factor Analysis
320 9.7.1 Non-negative Constraints Matrix Factorization
322 9.7.2 Positive Matrix Factorization
331 9.7.3 Unmix
335 References
341 10 ECOTOXICOLOGY 347 10.1 Introduction
347 10.2 Bioassays
349 10.2.1 Fish
350 10.2.2 Algae
350 10.2.3 Daphnia
351 10.3 Molecular Biology Tools
353 10.3.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
353 10.3.2 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
354 10.3.3 Gene Expression
354 10.3.4 Biomarkers
355 10.4 Human Health
357 10.4.1 Fisheries Advisories
357 10.4.2 Mercury
358 10.4.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
358 10.5 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
359 10.6 Types of Toxicity
360 10.6.1 Disinfection Byproducts
361 10.6.2 Detoxification and Degradation
361 10.6.3 Antibiotics
362 10.6.4 Nanomaterials
363 10.7 Models and Toxicity Tests
364 10.7.1 Dose-Response Models for Single Toxicants
364 10.7.2 Dose-Response Models for Multiple Toxicants
369 10.7.3 Pulsed Toxicity Tests
374 10.7.4 Chronic Toxicity Tests
375 10.8 Quality Criteria
376 10.8.1 Sediment Quality Criteria
376 10.8.2 Water Quality Criteria
381 10.8.3 Total Maximum Daily Loads
381 References
383 11 AMBIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA 389 11.1 Introduction
389 11.2 A Primer on Ambient Water Quality Regulations
390 11.3 Current US Water Quality Criteria
391 11.3.1 Aquatic Life Criteria
402 11.3.2 Human Health Criteria
403 11.3.3 Organoleptic Effects
404 11.4 Water Quality Databases
404 APPENDIX 11.A Footnote for Table 11.1
405 APPENDIX 11.B Footnote for Table 11.2
408 APPENDIX 11.C Additional Notes
410 References
412 Index 415
Preface xi 1 TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS 1 1.1 Introduction
1 1.2 Advection-Diffusion Equation with Reaction
2 1.3 Steady-State Mixing in Estuaries
4 1.3.1 Determination of Diffusivity D from Salinity Measurements
5 1.3.2 Pollutant Prediction for an Estuary with Uniform Discharge
5 1.3.3 Salinity in an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
8 1.3.4 Conservative Pollutant Prediction for an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
9 1.4 Time-Dependent Mixing in Rivers and Soil Systems
10 1.5 Vertical Mixing
14 1.5.1 The Radon Method
16 1.5.2 The Tritium-helium-3 Method
17 1.5.3 Evaluation of Mixing Based on Density Gradients
19 1.6 Hydrodynamic Models
20 1.7 Groundwater Plumes
22 1.8 Sediment Mixing
23 References
25 2 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES 28 2.1 Introduction
28 2.2 210Pb Dating of Sediments
29 2.2.1 Measurement of 210Pb Activity
30 2.2.2 210Pb Activity Profiles
33 2.3 137Cs and 239+240Pu Dating of Sediments
38 2.4 Dated Records of Metals and Organic Pollutants
42 2.5 Deconvolution of Sedimentary Records
49 2.6 Chemical and Biological Degradation
55 2.7 Sediments as a Source of Pollutants
56 2.7.1 Phosphorus
57 2.7.2 Metals
57 2.7.3 Acid-volatile Sulfides
58 2.7.4 Organics
59 References
60 3 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 65 3.1 Introduction
65 3.2 Atmospheric Deposition Processes
66 3.2.1 Gaseous vs. Particulate Chemicals in the Atmosphere
66 3.2.2 Dry Deposition with Aerosols
68 3.2.3 Wet Deposition
75 3.2.4 Gas Exchange
78 3.3 Deposition and Gas Exchange of Organic Contaminants
84 3.4 Marine and Freshwater Microlayers
87 3.5 Case Study: Emission of VOCs from Wastewater Treatment Plants
89 3.6 The Fugacity Model
93 3.6.1 Fugacity Definitions and Basic Equations
94 3.6.2 Levels of Complexity
101 3.6.3 Example Calculations - Chlorobenzene
103 References
108 4 WATER CHEMISTRY 113 4.1 Introduction
113 4.2 Carbonate and Alkalinity
115 4.2.1 Dissolved CO2 and Carbonate Speciation in Water
115 4.2.2 Solving Equilibrium pH
117 4.2.3 Alkalinity
120 4.2.4 Buffer Index
124 4.3 Sulfur Chemistry
127 4.3.1 Sulfur Redox Reactions in Water
128 4.3.2 Sulfur in Sediment
132 4.3.3 Acid Rain
133 4.4 Impact of Global Warming on Natural Waters
135 References
136 5 NUTRIENTS 138 5.1 Introduction
138 5.2 Input of Nutrients and Acidity
140 5.3 Eutrophication
143 5.3.1 Eutrophication Control
148 5.3.2 Harmful Algal Blooms
149 5.3.3 Cladophora
155 5.4 Nitrogen
156 5.4.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
156 5.4.2 Nitrification and Denitrification
159 5.4.3 N Removal
166 5.5 Phosphorus
169 5.5.1 The Phosphorus Cycle
169 5.5.2 P Removal
170 5.5.3 Case Study: Phosphorus from Wastewater Treatment
Stormwater
and Rivers in Milwaukee
Wisconsin
172 5.6 Vitamins and Trace Metals
173 References
180 6 METALS 185 6.1 Introduction
185 6.2 Trends
Measurement
and Toxicity
186 6.3 Major Sources and Reactions of Metals in Water
193 6.3.1 Atmospheric Deposition of Metals
193 6.3.2 Hydration
Hydrolysis
and Complex Formation
196 6.3.3 Dissolution of Metals from Minerals
201 6.4 Behavior of Selected Metals in Water
203 6.4.1 Mercury
203 6.4.2 Zinc and Cadmium
204 6.4.3 Arsenic
207 6.5 Zero-Valent Iron in Remediation of Contaminated Water
209 6.5.1 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
209 6.5.2 Reduction of Uranium Carbonate
Chromate
and Arsenate
214 References
215 7 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 220 7.1 Introduction
220 7.2 Important Organic Pollutant Groups
221 7.2.1 Petrochemicals and Industrial Solvents
221 7.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
223 7.2.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
223 7.2.4 Polyhalogenated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs)
226 7.2.5 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and other Flame Retardants
226 7.2.6 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
232 7.2.7 Other Pesticides
236 7.2.8 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)
239 7.2.9 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and other Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs)
240 7.3 Descriptors of Organic Molecules
243 7.4 Basic Physicochemical Properties
245 7.4.1 Vapor Pressure
246 7.4.2 Aqueous Solubility
247 7.4.3 Henry's Law Constant
248 7.4.4 Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient
248 7.4.5 Air-Octanol Partition Coefficient
249 7.5 Distribution of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Environment
249 7.5.1 Air-Water
250 7.5.2 Water-Sediment
250 7.5.3 Water-Biota and Sediment-Biota
251 7.6 Transformations in Water
252 7.6.1 Hydrolysis
253 7.6.2 Photochemical Degradation
255 7.6.3 Biological Degradation
257 7.6.4 Case Study: Transformation of PBDEs in the Environment
259 References
261 8 PATHOGENS 268 8.1 Introduction
268 8.2 Bacteria
271 8.3 Protozoa
272 8.3.1 Cryptosporidium
273 8.4 Molecular Techniques for Detection of Pathogens
276 8.4.1 Water
276 8.4.2 Biosolids
277 8.5 Pathogen Indicator Organisms and Surrogates
277 8.5.1 Bacillus Subtilis
280 8.5.2 E. Coli and Fecal Coliforms
280 8.6 Bacterial Contamination of Recreational Waters
281 8.6.1 Modeling
283 8.6.2 Beaches
286 8.6.3 Recreational Pools
287 8.7 Pathogen Removal in Water and Wastewater Treatment
288 8.7.1 Water
288 8.7.2 Wastewater and Solid Waste
289 8.7.3 Inactivation Kinetics
290 References
295 9 TRACERS 298 9.1 Introduction
298 9.2 Natural vs. Artificial Tracers
299 9.3 Radioisotopes
300 9.4 Stable Isotopes
301 9.5 Applications of Tracer Technology
305 9.5.1 Stable Isotope Tracers
305 9.5.2 N and O Stable Isotopic Compositions of Nitrate Sources
309 9.5.3 Other Physical and Chemical Tracers
310 9.5.4 Molecular-Based Biological Tracers
314 9.6 Chemical Mass Balance Modeling
315 9.6.1 CMB Model for PAHs in Kinnickinnic River
Wisconsin
316 9.7 Factor Analysis
320 9.7.1 Non-negative Constraints Matrix Factorization
322 9.7.2 Positive Matrix Factorization
331 9.7.3 Unmix
335 References
341 10 ECOTOXICOLOGY 347 10.1 Introduction
347 10.2 Bioassays
349 10.2.1 Fish
350 10.2.2 Algae
350 10.2.3 Daphnia
351 10.3 Molecular Biology Tools
353 10.3.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
353 10.3.2 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
354 10.3.3 Gene Expression
354 10.3.4 Biomarkers
355 10.4 Human Health
357 10.4.1 Fisheries Advisories
357 10.4.2 Mercury
358 10.4.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
358 10.5 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
359 10.6 Types of Toxicity
360 10.6.1 Disinfection Byproducts
361 10.6.2 Detoxification and Degradation
361 10.6.3 Antibiotics
362 10.6.4 Nanomaterials
363 10.7 Models and Toxicity Tests
364 10.7.1 Dose-Response Models for Single Toxicants
364 10.7.2 Dose-Response Models for Multiple Toxicants
369 10.7.3 Pulsed Toxicity Tests
374 10.7.4 Chronic Toxicity Tests
375 10.8 Quality Criteria
376 10.8.1 Sediment Quality Criteria
376 10.8.2 Water Quality Criteria
381 10.8.3 Total Maximum Daily Loads
381 References
383 11 AMBIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA 389 11.1 Introduction
389 11.2 A Primer on Ambient Water Quality Regulations
390 11.3 Current US Water Quality Criteria
391 11.3.1 Aquatic Life Criteria
402 11.3.2 Human Health Criteria
403 11.3.3 Organoleptic Effects
404 11.4 Water Quality Databases
404 APPENDIX 11.A Footnote for Table 11.1
405 APPENDIX 11.B Footnote for Table 11.2
408 APPENDIX 11.C Additional Notes
410 References
412 Index 415
1 1.2 Advection-Diffusion Equation with Reaction
2 1.3 Steady-State Mixing in Estuaries
4 1.3.1 Determination of Diffusivity D from Salinity Measurements
5 1.3.2 Pollutant Prediction for an Estuary with Uniform Discharge
5 1.3.3 Salinity in an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
8 1.3.4 Conservative Pollutant Prediction for an Infinite Estuary with a Large Freshwater Discharge
9 1.4 Time-Dependent Mixing in Rivers and Soil Systems
10 1.5 Vertical Mixing
14 1.5.1 The Radon Method
16 1.5.2 The Tritium-helium-3 Method
17 1.5.3 Evaluation of Mixing Based on Density Gradients
19 1.6 Hydrodynamic Models
20 1.7 Groundwater Plumes
22 1.8 Sediment Mixing
23 References
25 2 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES 28 2.1 Introduction
28 2.2 210Pb Dating of Sediments
29 2.2.1 Measurement of 210Pb Activity
30 2.2.2 210Pb Activity Profiles
33 2.3 137Cs and 239+240Pu Dating of Sediments
38 2.4 Dated Records of Metals and Organic Pollutants
42 2.5 Deconvolution of Sedimentary Records
49 2.6 Chemical and Biological Degradation
55 2.7 Sediments as a Source of Pollutants
56 2.7.1 Phosphorus
57 2.7.2 Metals
57 2.7.3 Acid-volatile Sulfides
58 2.7.4 Organics
59 References
60 3 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTIONS 65 3.1 Introduction
65 3.2 Atmospheric Deposition Processes
66 3.2.1 Gaseous vs. Particulate Chemicals in the Atmosphere
66 3.2.2 Dry Deposition with Aerosols
68 3.2.3 Wet Deposition
75 3.2.4 Gas Exchange
78 3.3 Deposition and Gas Exchange of Organic Contaminants
84 3.4 Marine and Freshwater Microlayers
87 3.5 Case Study: Emission of VOCs from Wastewater Treatment Plants
89 3.6 The Fugacity Model
93 3.6.1 Fugacity Definitions and Basic Equations
94 3.6.2 Levels of Complexity
101 3.6.3 Example Calculations - Chlorobenzene
103 References
108 4 WATER CHEMISTRY 113 4.1 Introduction
113 4.2 Carbonate and Alkalinity
115 4.2.1 Dissolved CO2 and Carbonate Speciation in Water
115 4.2.2 Solving Equilibrium pH
117 4.2.3 Alkalinity
120 4.2.4 Buffer Index
124 4.3 Sulfur Chemistry
127 4.3.1 Sulfur Redox Reactions in Water
128 4.3.2 Sulfur in Sediment
132 4.3.3 Acid Rain
133 4.4 Impact of Global Warming on Natural Waters
135 References
136 5 NUTRIENTS 138 5.1 Introduction
138 5.2 Input of Nutrients and Acidity
140 5.3 Eutrophication
143 5.3.1 Eutrophication Control
148 5.3.2 Harmful Algal Blooms
149 5.3.3 Cladophora
155 5.4 Nitrogen
156 5.4.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
156 5.4.2 Nitrification and Denitrification
159 5.4.3 N Removal
166 5.5 Phosphorus
169 5.5.1 The Phosphorus Cycle
169 5.5.2 P Removal
170 5.5.3 Case Study: Phosphorus from Wastewater Treatment
Stormwater
and Rivers in Milwaukee
Wisconsin
172 5.6 Vitamins and Trace Metals
173 References
180 6 METALS 185 6.1 Introduction
185 6.2 Trends
Measurement
and Toxicity
186 6.3 Major Sources and Reactions of Metals in Water
193 6.3.1 Atmospheric Deposition of Metals
193 6.3.2 Hydration
Hydrolysis
and Complex Formation
196 6.3.3 Dissolution of Metals from Minerals
201 6.4 Behavior of Selected Metals in Water
203 6.4.1 Mercury
203 6.4.2 Zinc and Cadmium
204 6.4.3 Arsenic
207 6.5 Zero-Valent Iron in Remediation of Contaminated Water
209 6.5.1 Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
209 6.5.2 Reduction of Uranium Carbonate
Chromate
and Arsenate
214 References
215 7 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 220 7.1 Introduction
220 7.2 Important Organic Pollutant Groups
221 7.2.1 Petrochemicals and Industrial Solvents
221 7.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
223 7.2.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
223 7.2.4 Polyhalogenated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs)
226 7.2.5 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and other Flame Retardants
226 7.2.6 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
232 7.2.7 Other Pesticides
236 7.2.8 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)
239 7.2.9 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and other Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs)
240 7.3 Descriptors of Organic Molecules
243 7.4 Basic Physicochemical Properties
245 7.4.1 Vapor Pressure
246 7.4.2 Aqueous Solubility
247 7.4.3 Henry's Law Constant
248 7.4.4 Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient
248 7.4.5 Air-Octanol Partition Coefficient
249 7.5 Distribution of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Environment
249 7.5.1 Air-Water
250 7.5.2 Water-Sediment
250 7.5.3 Water-Biota and Sediment-Biota
251 7.6 Transformations in Water
252 7.6.1 Hydrolysis
253 7.6.2 Photochemical Degradation
255 7.6.3 Biological Degradation
257 7.6.4 Case Study: Transformation of PBDEs in the Environment
259 References
261 8 PATHOGENS 268 8.1 Introduction
268 8.2 Bacteria
271 8.3 Protozoa
272 8.3.1 Cryptosporidium
273 8.4 Molecular Techniques for Detection of Pathogens
276 8.4.1 Water
276 8.4.2 Biosolids
277 8.5 Pathogen Indicator Organisms and Surrogates
277 8.5.1 Bacillus Subtilis
280 8.5.2 E. Coli and Fecal Coliforms
280 8.6 Bacterial Contamination of Recreational Waters
281 8.6.1 Modeling
283 8.6.2 Beaches
286 8.6.3 Recreational Pools
287 8.7 Pathogen Removal in Water and Wastewater Treatment
288 8.7.1 Water
288 8.7.2 Wastewater and Solid Waste
289 8.7.3 Inactivation Kinetics
290 References
295 9 TRACERS 298 9.1 Introduction
298 9.2 Natural vs. Artificial Tracers
299 9.3 Radioisotopes
300 9.4 Stable Isotopes
301 9.5 Applications of Tracer Technology
305 9.5.1 Stable Isotope Tracers
305 9.5.2 N and O Stable Isotopic Compositions of Nitrate Sources
309 9.5.3 Other Physical and Chemical Tracers
310 9.5.4 Molecular-Based Biological Tracers
314 9.6 Chemical Mass Balance Modeling
315 9.6.1 CMB Model for PAHs in Kinnickinnic River
Wisconsin
316 9.7 Factor Analysis
320 9.7.1 Non-negative Constraints Matrix Factorization
322 9.7.2 Positive Matrix Factorization
331 9.7.3 Unmix
335 References
341 10 ECOTOXICOLOGY 347 10.1 Introduction
347 10.2 Bioassays
349 10.2.1 Fish
350 10.2.2 Algae
350 10.2.3 Daphnia
351 10.3 Molecular Biology Tools
353 10.3.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
353 10.3.2 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
354 10.3.3 Gene Expression
354 10.3.4 Biomarkers
355 10.4 Human Health
357 10.4.1 Fisheries Advisories
357 10.4.2 Mercury
358 10.4.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
358 10.5 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
359 10.6 Types of Toxicity
360 10.6.1 Disinfection Byproducts
361 10.6.2 Detoxification and Degradation
361 10.6.3 Antibiotics
362 10.6.4 Nanomaterials
363 10.7 Models and Toxicity Tests
364 10.7.1 Dose-Response Models for Single Toxicants
364 10.7.2 Dose-Response Models for Multiple Toxicants
369 10.7.3 Pulsed Toxicity Tests
374 10.7.4 Chronic Toxicity Tests
375 10.8 Quality Criteria
376 10.8.1 Sediment Quality Criteria
376 10.8.2 Water Quality Criteria
381 10.8.3 Total Maximum Daily Loads
381 References
383 11 AMBIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA 389 11.1 Introduction
389 11.2 A Primer on Ambient Water Quality Regulations
390 11.3 Current US Water Quality Criteria
391 11.3.1 Aquatic Life Criteria
402 11.3.2 Human Health Criteria
403 11.3.3 Organoleptic Effects
404 11.4 Water Quality Databases
404 APPENDIX 11.A Footnote for Table 11.1
405 APPENDIX 11.B Footnote for Table 11.2
408 APPENDIX 11.C Additional Notes
410 References
412 Index 415