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This book aims to help improve predictions of important properties of soils through a modern understanding of their highly reactive clay minerals as they are formed and occur in soils worldwide. It examines how clays occur in soils and the role of soil clays in disparate applications.
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This book aims to help improve predictions of important properties of soils through a modern understanding of their highly reactive clay minerals as they are formed and occur in soils worldwide. It examines how clays occur in soils and the role of soil clays in disparate applications.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: CRC Press
- Seitenzahl: 276
- Erscheinungstermin: 26. Juni 2019
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 261mm x 184mm x 20mm
- Gewicht: 658g
- ISBN-13: 9781498770057
- ISBN-10: 1498770053
- Artikelnr.: 57111868
- Verlag: CRC Press
- Seitenzahl: 276
- Erscheinungstermin: 26. Juni 2019
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 261mm x 184mm x 20mm
- Gewicht: 658g
- ISBN-13: 9781498770057
- ISBN-10: 1498770053
- Artikelnr.: 57111868
G. Jock Churchman is adjunct senior lecturer at the University of Adelaide (Australia) and adjunct associate professor at the University of South Australia. Jock Churchman's clay interests began with a PhD in chemistry on halloysite at the University of Otago in his native New Zealand, followed by industrial ceramic research (1970-1971). He held a postdoctoral fellowship in soil science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (1971-1973) and was employed at the New Zealand Soil Bureau (1973-89), then at CSIRO (1989-2003), the University of Adelaide (2003-2012) and the University of South Australia (2013-2014). He has also held visiting fellowships in soil science for one year at Reading University (UK) and for six months at the University of Western Australia. His research has encompassed halloysite; acid dissolution of montmorillonite; dust transport; clay mineral genesis; clay-organic complexes; the influence of clay mineralogy on soil physical properties; clays in sodic soils; the characteriation of bentonites and their industrial and environmental applications; and the philosophy of soil science. He has published nearly 150 refereed papers and coedited four books, most recently The Soil Underfoot: Infinite Possibilities for a Finite Resource (CRC Press, 2014) and Natural Mineral Nanotubes (CRC Press, 2015). He is a former editor (now emeritus) of Applied Clay Science. He has received awards from the New Zealand Society of Soil Science, Soil Science Australia, the Association Internationale pour l'Étude des Argiles (AIPEA) and the Clay Minerals Society. Bruce Velde is an emeritus researcher for the Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris. He did his PhD at Montana State University (1962) under the direction of John Hower, then he did a postdoctoral study at the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory in Washington DC (1962-1965) after which he joined the CNRS in Paris. The initial research subjects treated were the evolution of clay minerals in sediments and sedimentary rocks, and their stability under different laboratory conditions of pressure and temperature. During the latter period, he published 237 refereed papers, authored and coauthored 8 books on clays and their chemical relations in natural situations and advised 22 PhD theses on these subjects. His books are Clays and Clay Minerals in Natural and Synthetic Systems (Springer, 1977); Introduction to Clay Minerals: Chemistry, Uses and Environmental Significance (Chapman & Hall, 1992); Archaeological Ceramic Materials: Origin and Utilization (Springer, 1999); Clay Minerals: A Physico-Chemical Explanation of Their Occurrence (Elsevier, 2000); Illite: Origins, Evolution and Metamorphism (Springer, 2004); The Origin of Clay Minerals in Soils and Weathered Rocks (Springer, 2008); Soils, Plants and Clay Minerals: Mineral and Biologic Interactions (Springer, 2009); Origin and Mineralogy of Clays: Clays and the Environment (edited) (Springer, 2013); and Geochemistry at the Earth's Surface (2016). The evolution of his work was to understand the chemical and physical reasons for the variety and stability of clay mineral associations from depth towards the surface of the Earth. He also did work on the formation of clay-associated structures (aggregates) and surface cracking using image analysis.
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................
xiii
Authors............................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction and
Definitions.........................................................................................1
1.1
Soil......................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Origin of Soils and Clays in Geological
Time............................................2
1.3 Weathering as the Origin of (Most)
Soils...........................................................3
1.4 From Rock to Soil: The Biological Factor in the Initial Stages of Rock
Alteration and Soil
Formation............................................................................4
1.5 Soil
Science........................................................................................................7
1.6
Clays...................................................................................................................8
1.7 Clay Mineral
Formation.....................................................................................9
1.8 Soil Clay
Mineralogy.......................................................................................
12
1.9 A New Approach to the Study of Soil
Clays.................................................... 13
1.10 Soil
Classification.............................................................................................
14
References...................................................................................................................
14
Chapter 2 Soil Clays:
Mineralogy................................................................................................
17
2.1 Basic Structures of
Phyllosilicates...................................................................
17
2.2 Lattice
Substitutions.........................................................................................
19
2.3 Oxidation-Reduction
Effects............................................................................
21
2.4 Residual Charge on 2:1 Structure Due to Ionic Substitutions and Site
Occupation
.......................................................................................................
21
2.4.1 Names for 2:1 Structure Minerals in
Soils..........................................22
2.5 Charge Intensity and Interlayer Cation Complex
Types...................................24
2.6 Cation Exchange in Interlayer
Sites..................................................................24
2.7 Cation Exchange Sites on Clay Edges
.............................................................26
2.8 Pertinent Principles of Cation
Exchange..........................................................28
2.8.1 Cation-Water
Interaction....................................................................28
2.8.1.1 Cation-Water Interaction:
Summary...................................29
2.8.1.2 Selectivity among Ions in Solution: Summary....................30
2.8.1.3 Relations of Preference for Cations or Hydrogen Ions
(Cations):
Summary.............................................................30
2.8.1.4 Types of Exchanged Cation in Layer Silicate
Interlayers:
Summary..........................................................30
2.8.1.5 Cation Exchange on Edge Sites: Summary.........................30
2.8.2 Overall Effect of pH on Exchange (Capture or Loss) of Cations........
31
2.9 Effect of
Climate..............................................................................................
32
2.10 Mixed-Layered Clays
......................................................................................
32
2.11 Identification of Layer Silicate Clays (2:1 and 1:1 Structures) by
X-Ray
Diffraction........................................................................................................
33
2.12 Allophane and
Imogolite..................................................................................34
2.13 Iron Oxides, Hydroxides and
Oxyhydroxides.................................................. 35
2.13.1 Surface Reactions of Fe Oxides
.........................................................36
2.14 Aluminium Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and
Hydroxides......................................36
2.15 Manganese
Oxides...........................................................................................36
2.16 Silicon
Oxides..................................................................................................
37
2.17 Titanium
Oxides...............................................................................................37
2.18 Zirconium
Minerals..........................................................................................37
References...................................................................................................................37
Chapter 3 Geology: Defining the Starting Point for Soil and Clay
Formation............................ 41
3.1 The Geological
Cycle.......................................................................................
41
3.2 Geology of the Continental
Surfaces............................................................... 41
3.3 Primary Minerals in Rocks: Raw Material for
Alteration............................... 42
3.3.1
Silicates...............................................................................................
42
3.3.2
Non-Silicates.......................................................................................44
3.3.3 The Initial Production of Clays in
Weathering................................... 45
3.3.4 Geological Deposits, Rock Types and Clay
Minerals......................... 47
3.3.4.1
Rocks...................................................................................
47
3.3.4.2
Sediments............................................................................
47
3.3.4.3 Loess and
Dust....................................................................48
References...................................................................................................................
51
Chapter 4 Primary Minerals and Their Alteration by
Weathering.............................................. 53
4.1 Primary Minerals and Their Weathering Products
......................................... 53
4.1.1 Amphiboles, Pyroxenes and Olivines
................................................ 53
4.1.2
Serpentinites........................................................................................
53
4.1.3 Volcanic Glass
....................................................................................
53
4.1.4 Feldspars
.............................................................................................54
4.1.5 Micas
..................................................................................................54
4.1.6 Chlorites
.............................................................................................54
4.1.7 Heterogeneity of
Products...................................................................
55
4.2. Mechanisms of Alteration of Primary Minerals
............................................. 55
4.2.1
Oxidation.............................................................................................
55
4.2.2 Reaction Rates and Parameters Determining Alteration
as a Function of
Time..........................................................................56
4.2.3 Effects of
pH.......................................................................................56
References...................................................................................................................
57
Chapter 5 Driving Forces of
Alteration.......................................................................................
59
5.1
Climate.............................................................................................................
59
5.2
Topography.......................................................................................................
59
5.2.1 Interaction at the Water-Rock
Interface.............................................60
5.3 Geological
Parameters......................................................................................63
5.3.1 Alteration
Profile.................................................................................63
5.3.2 Rock Alteration by Pore
Water............................................................64
5.3.3 Movement of
Clays..............................................................................65
5.3.4 Geology and Alteration
......................................................................65
References...................................................................................................................68
Chapter 6 Chemistry of Alteration by
Weathering......................................................................69
6.1 Alteration
Context............................................................................................69
6.2 Chemical
Forces...............................................................................................69
6.3 Chemistry of Elements and Mineral
Stability.................................................. 70
6.4 Mechanisms of
Alteration................................................................................
71
6.4.1 Mineral Change: Loss of Mineralogical Identity
............................... 71
6.4.2
Dissolution...........................................................................................
72
6.4.3 Interaction by Diffusion and Ion
Exchange........................................ 72
6.4.4
Oxidation.............................................................................................
74
6.5 Formation of New
Clays...................................................................................
75
6.5.1 Crystal
Growth....................................................................................
75
6.5.2 Mineral Growth from Amorphous
Materials..................................... 75
6.5.3 Mineral
Transformation......................................................................
76
References...................................................................................................................77
Chapter 7 Formation of Clays in the Soil Zone of
Alteration...................................................... 79
7.1 Crystallisation from Incongruent
Dissolution.................................................. 79
7.2 Crystal Growth from Elements in
Solution......................................................80
7.2.1
Neogenesis...........................................................................................80
7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Explanation of Stability of Minerals....... 81
7.2.2 Transformation of
Minerals................................................................82
7.3 Effect of Plants on Soil Clay
Assemblages......................................................85
7.3.1 Transformation in Temperate
Climates...............................................86
7.3.2 Transformation of Pre-Existing Phyllosilicate Minerals of High
Temperature
Origin.............................................................................86
7.3.3 Formation of Mixed-Layered 2:1 Clays
.............................................87
7.3.4 Formation of Palygorskite and Sepiolite in
Soils................................88
7.3.5 Formation and Transformation of 2:1 to 1:1 Mixed-Layer
Clays........89
7.3.5.1 Interstratifications of Kaolinite and Smectite and
Their
Evolution....................................................................89
7.3.5.2
Halloysite-Smectites............................................................90
7.3.5.3 Interstratification of Kaolins with Other 2:1 Minerals........90
7.3.6 Crystallisation of 1:1 Clays in
Soils....................................................90
7.3.7 Formation of Oxyhydroxide Al- and Fe-Dominated Soil Clay
Assemblages
.......................................................................................92
7.3.8 Formation of Other
Oxides.................................................................93
7.3.9 Formation of Other Compounds in
Soils............................................94
7.3.10 Biology and Its Effect on Clays and Clay Associations in Soils
........94
7.3.10.1 Soil
Structure.......................................................................95
References...................................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Nature and Origin of Surface Soil
Clays.................................................................. 103
8.1 Illites
(2:1).......................................................................................................
103
8.2 Vermiculites
(2:1)...........................................................................................
103
8.3 Smectites
(2:1).................................................................................................
108
8.4 Mixed-Layered 2:1
Minerals..........................................................................
108
8.5 Kaolin-Smectites Interstratified
(1:1-2:1)....................................................... 113
8.6 Kaolinite
(1:1).................................................................................................
116
8.7 Halloysite
(1:1)................................................................................................
116
8.8 Allophane (1:2 to 1:1) and Imogolite
(1:2)...................................................... 121
8.9 Palygorskite and Sepiolite (2:1
Si:Mg)........................................................... 123
8.10 Oxides and Rarer
Minerals............................................................................
125
References.................................................................................................................
126
Chapter 9 The Importance of Climate in the Formation of Soil
Clays..................................... 133
9.1 Cold and Cool
Zones......................................................................................
134
9.2 Warm
Zone.....................................................................................................
135
9.3 Hot
Zone.........................................................................................................
136
9.4 Mechanisms of
Change..................................................................................
138
References.................................................................................................................
139
Chapter 10 Associations of Soil
Clays.........................................................................................
143
10.1 Organic
Matter...............................................................................................
143
10.2 Charges on Clay
Particles...............................................................................
144
10.3 Organo-Mineral
Interactions..........................................................................
146
10.4 Combined Indications on Links between Minerals and
SOM....................... 152
10.5 Formation and Stabilisation of
Microaggregates........................................... 153
10.6 Clay and Organic Aggregation and Soil
Structure......................................... 156
10.6.1 Organic Particle Size and Fixation on Different Clay-Sized
Particles (OM Content and Clay-Size
Fraction)................................ 156
10.6.2 Formation of Macroaggregates
........................................................ 157
10.6.3 Evolution of Aggregates with Rainfall Episodes
(Wetting and
Drying)........................................................................
158
10.6.4 Macroaggregates and Soil Structure: The Formation of
Fractures.........158
10.6.5 Change of Structure with Depth: Aggregation and Fractures..........
159
10.6.6 Organic Matter and Clay Structures and Retention
of Capillary
Water.............................................................................
159
References.................................................................................................................
160
Chapter 11 Occurrence and Extraction of Soil Clays
................................................................. 167
11.1 Clay
Associations...........................................................................................
167
11.2 Extraction of Soil
Clays..................................................................................
170
11.3 Recommended
Procedures.............................................................................
174
References.................................................................................................................
175
Chapter 12 Identification and Quantification of Clay Minerals in
Soils..................................... 177
12.1 Identification of Soil Clays by X-Ray
Diffraction.......................................... 177
12.2 Identification and Analyses of Soil Clays by Chemical
Extractions.............. 177
12.3 Identification of Soil Clays by Infrared
Spectroscopy................................... 179
12.4 Identification of Soil Clays by Thermal
Analyses.......................................... 179
12.5 Identification of Soil Clays by Electron
Microscopy..................................... 179
12.6 Analysis of Soil Clays by Other
Techniques.................................................. 180
12.7 Quantitative
Analyses.....................................................................................
180
References.................................................................................................................
181
Chapter 13 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size
Effects.............................................. 185
13.1 Soil Clays and Surface
Areas.........................................................................
185
13.2 Effect of Associations of Clays on Surface
Areas.......................................... 186
13.2.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Surface
Areas...................................... 186
13.2.2 Effect of Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and Hydroxides
on Surface
Areas...............................................................................
187
13.3 Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays.....................................................................
187
13.4 Effect of Associations upon Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays....................... 187
13.5 Effects of Particle
Size...................................................................................
190
13.6 Integration: Importance of Phenomena; Limitations of
Measurements......... 191
References.................................................................................................................
192
Chapter 14 Role of Soil Clays in Agriculture, the Environment and Society
............................ 195
14.1 Plant
Nutrition................................................................................................
195
14.2 Soil Structure and Water Holding and
Supply............................................... 196
14.3 Formation and Stabilisation of
Pores............................................................. 198
14.4 Aggregation, Pores and Soil
Quality..............................................................200
14.5 Bulk Soil Physical
Properties.........................................................................
201
14.6 Carbon
Sequestration.....................................................................................208
14.7 Pollution and Its
Remediation........................................................................
210
14.8
Medicine.........................................................................................................
212
14.9
Forensics.........................................................................................................
213
14.10 Archaeology and Environmental
History...................................................... 214
References.................................................................................................................
215
Chapter 15
Summary...................................................................................................................
221
15.1 Soils (From Chapter
1)...................................................................................
221
15.2 Clays (From Chapter
2)..................................................................................
221
15.3 Formation of Clays in Soils (From Chapters
3-7).........................................222
15.4 Types of Clays and Their Origins (From Chapters 8 and
9)..........................224
15.5 Associations of Clays in Soils (From Chapter
10).........................................226
15.6 Extraction of Clays from Soil, and Their Identification and
Quantification (From Chapters 11 and
12).....................................................228
15.7 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size Effects (From Chapter
13).........229
15.8 Role of Soil Clays in Applications in Agriculture, the Environment and
Society (From Chapter
14).............................................................................229
15.9
Résumé...........................................................................................................
231
Bibliography..............................................................................................................
232
Annex: Simplified Methods for the Interpretation of X-Ray Diffraction
Diagrams of Soil Clay
Assemblages...............................................................................................
233
Index...............................................................................................................................................245
Preface............................................................................................................................................
xiii
Authors............................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction and
Definitions.........................................................................................1
1.1
Soil......................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Origin of Soils and Clays in Geological
Time............................................2
1.3 Weathering as the Origin of (Most)
Soils...........................................................3
1.4 From Rock to Soil: The Biological Factor in the Initial Stages of Rock
Alteration and Soil
Formation............................................................................4
1.5 Soil
Science........................................................................................................7
1.6
Clays...................................................................................................................8
1.7 Clay Mineral
Formation.....................................................................................9
1.8 Soil Clay
Mineralogy.......................................................................................
12
1.9 A New Approach to the Study of Soil
Clays.................................................... 13
1.10 Soil
Classification.............................................................................................
14
References...................................................................................................................
14
Chapter 2 Soil Clays:
Mineralogy................................................................................................
17
2.1 Basic Structures of
Phyllosilicates...................................................................
17
2.2 Lattice
Substitutions.........................................................................................
19
2.3 Oxidation-Reduction
Effects............................................................................
21
2.4 Residual Charge on 2:1 Structure Due to Ionic Substitutions and Site
Occupation
.......................................................................................................
21
2.4.1 Names for 2:1 Structure Minerals in
Soils..........................................22
2.5 Charge Intensity and Interlayer Cation Complex
Types...................................24
2.6 Cation Exchange in Interlayer
Sites..................................................................24
2.7 Cation Exchange Sites on Clay Edges
.............................................................26
2.8 Pertinent Principles of Cation
Exchange..........................................................28
2.8.1 Cation-Water
Interaction....................................................................28
2.8.1.1 Cation-Water Interaction:
Summary...................................29
2.8.1.2 Selectivity among Ions in Solution: Summary....................30
2.8.1.3 Relations of Preference for Cations or Hydrogen Ions
(Cations):
Summary.............................................................30
2.8.1.4 Types of Exchanged Cation in Layer Silicate
Interlayers:
Summary..........................................................30
2.8.1.5 Cation Exchange on Edge Sites: Summary.........................30
2.8.2 Overall Effect of pH on Exchange (Capture or Loss) of Cations........
31
2.9 Effect of
Climate..............................................................................................
32
2.10 Mixed-Layered Clays
......................................................................................
32
2.11 Identification of Layer Silicate Clays (2:1 and 1:1 Structures) by
X-Ray
Diffraction........................................................................................................
33
2.12 Allophane and
Imogolite..................................................................................34
2.13 Iron Oxides, Hydroxides and
Oxyhydroxides.................................................. 35
2.13.1 Surface Reactions of Fe Oxides
.........................................................36
2.14 Aluminium Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and
Hydroxides......................................36
2.15 Manganese
Oxides...........................................................................................36
2.16 Silicon
Oxides..................................................................................................
37
2.17 Titanium
Oxides...............................................................................................37
2.18 Zirconium
Minerals..........................................................................................37
References...................................................................................................................37
Chapter 3 Geology: Defining the Starting Point for Soil and Clay
Formation............................ 41
3.1 The Geological
Cycle.......................................................................................
41
3.2 Geology of the Continental
Surfaces............................................................... 41
3.3 Primary Minerals in Rocks: Raw Material for
Alteration............................... 42
3.3.1
Silicates...............................................................................................
42
3.3.2
Non-Silicates.......................................................................................44
3.3.3 The Initial Production of Clays in
Weathering................................... 45
3.3.4 Geological Deposits, Rock Types and Clay
Minerals......................... 47
3.3.4.1
Rocks...................................................................................
47
3.3.4.2
Sediments............................................................................
47
3.3.4.3 Loess and
Dust....................................................................48
References...................................................................................................................
51
Chapter 4 Primary Minerals and Their Alteration by
Weathering.............................................. 53
4.1 Primary Minerals and Their Weathering Products
......................................... 53
4.1.1 Amphiboles, Pyroxenes and Olivines
................................................ 53
4.1.2
Serpentinites........................................................................................
53
4.1.3 Volcanic Glass
....................................................................................
53
4.1.4 Feldspars
.............................................................................................54
4.1.5 Micas
..................................................................................................54
4.1.6 Chlorites
.............................................................................................54
4.1.7 Heterogeneity of
Products...................................................................
55
4.2. Mechanisms of Alteration of Primary Minerals
............................................. 55
4.2.1
Oxidation.............................................................................................
55
4.2.2 Reaction Rates and Parameters Determining Alteration
as a Function of
Time..........................................................................56
4.2.3 Effects of
pH.......................................................................................56
References...................................................................................................................
57
Chapter 5 Driving Forces of
Alteration.......................................................................................
59
5.1
Climate.............................................................................................................
59
5.2
Topography.......................................................................................................
59
5.2.1 Interaction at the Water-Rock
Interface.............................................60
5.3 Geological
Parameters......................................................................................63
5.3.1 Alteration
Profile.................................................................................63
5.3.2 Rock Alteration by Pore
Water............................................................64
5.3.3 Movement of
Clays..............................................................................65
5.3.4 Geology and Alteration
......................................................................65
References...................................................................................................................68
Chapter 6 Chemistry of Alteration by
Weathering......................................................................69
6.1 Alteration
Context............................................................................................69
6.2 Chemical
Forces...............................................................................................69
6.3 Chemistry of Elements and Mineral
Stability.................................................. 70
6.4 Mechanisms of
Alteration................................................................................
71
6.4.1 Mineral Change: Loss of Mineralogical Identity
............................... 71
6.4.2
Dissolution...........................................................................................
72
6.4.3 Interaction by Diffusion and Ion
Exchange........................................ 72
6.4.4
Oxidation.............................................................................................
74
6.5 Formation of New
Clays...................................................................................
75
6.5.1 Crystal
Growth....................................................................................
75
6.5.2 Mineral Growth from Amorphous
Materials..................................... 75
6.5.3 Mineral
Transformation......................................................................
76
References...................................................................................................................77
Chapter 7 Formation of Clays in the Soil Zone of
Alteration...................................................... 79
7.1 Crystallisation from Incongruent
Dissolution.................................................. 79
7.2 Crystal Growth from Elements in
Solution......................................................80
7.2.1
Neogenesis...........................................................................................80
7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Explanation of Stability of Minerals....... 81
7.2.2 Transformation of
Minerals................................................................82
7.3 Effect of Plants on Soil Clay
Assemblages......................................................85
7.3.1 Transformation in Temperate
Climates...............................................86
7.3.2 Transformation of Pre-Existing Phyllosilicate Minerals of High
Temperature
Origin.............................................................................86
7.3.3 Formation of Mixed-Layered 2:1 Clays
.............................................87
7.3.4 Formation of Palygorskite and Sepiolite in
Soils................................88
7.3.5 Formation and Transformation of 2:1 to 1:1 Mixed-Layer
Clays........89
7.3.5.1 Interstratifications of Kaolinite and Smectite and
Their
Evolution....................................................................89
7.3.5.2
Halloysite-Smectites............................................................90
7.3.5.3 Interstratification of Kaolins with Other 2:1 Minerals........90
7.3.6 Crystallisation of 1:1 Clays in
Soils....................................................90
7.3.7 Formation of Oxyhydroxide Al- and Fe-Dominated Soil Clay
Assemblages
.......................................................................................92
7.3.8 Formation of Other
Oxides.................................................................93
7.3.9 Formation of Other Compounds in
Soils............................................94
7.3.10 Biology and Its Effect on Clays and Clay Associations in Soils
........94
7.3.10.1 Soil
Structure.......................................................................95
References...................................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Nature and Origin of Surface Soil
Clays.................................................................. 103
8.1 Illites
(2:1).......................................................................................................
103
8.2 Vermiculites
(2:1)...........................................................................................
103
8.3 Smectites
(2:1).................................................................................................
108
8.4 Mixed-Layered 2:1
Minerals..........................................................................
108
8.5 Kaolin-Smectites Interstratified
(1:1-2:1)....................................................... 113
8.6 Kaolinite
(1:1).................................................................................................
116
8.7 Halloysite
(1:1)................................................................................................
116
8.8 Allophane (1:2 to 1:1) and Imogolite
(1:2)...................................................... 121
8.9 Palygorskite and Sepiolite (2:1
Si:Mg)........................................................... 123
8.10 Oxides and Rarer
Minerals............................................................................
125
References.................................................................................................................
126
Chapter 9 The Importance of Climate in the Formation of Soil
Clays..................................... 133
9.1 Cold and Cool
Zones......................................................................................
134
9.2 Warm
Zone.....................................................................................................
135
9.3 Hot
Zone.........................................................................................................
136
9.4 Mechanisms of
Change..................................................................................
138
References.................................................................................................................
139
Chapter 10 Associations of Soil
Clays.........................................................................................
143
10.1 Organic
Matter...............................................................................................
143
10.2 Charges on Clay
Particles...............................................................................
144
10.3 Organo-Mineral
Interactions..........................................................................
146
10.4 Combined Indications on Links between Minerals and
SOM....................... 152
10.5 Formation and Stabilisation of
Microaggregates........................................... 153
10.6 Clay and Organic Aggregation and Soil
Structure......................................... 156
10.6.1 Organic Particle Size and Fixation on Different Clay-Sized
Particles (OM Content and Clay-Size
Fraction)................................ 156
10.6.2 Formation of Macroaggregates
........................................................ 157
10.6.3 Evolution of Aggregates with Rainfall Episodes
(Wetting and
Drying)........................................................................
158
10.6.4 Macroaggregates and Soil Structure: The Formation of
Fractures.........158
10.6.5 Change of Structure with Depth: Aggregation and Fractures..........
159
10.6.6 Organic Matter and Clay Structures and Retention
of Capillary
Water.............................................................................
159
References.................................................................................................................
160
Chapter 11 Occurrence and Extraction of Soil Clays
................................................................. 167
11.1 Clay
Associations...........................................................................................
167
11.2 Extraction of Soil
Clays..................................................................................
170
11.3 Recommended
Procedures.............................................................................
174
References.................................................................................................................
175
Chapter 12 Identification and Quantification of Clay Minerals in
Soils..................................... 177
12.1 Identification of Soil Clays by X-Ray
Diffraction.......................................... 177
12.2 Identification and Analyses of Soil Clays by Chemical
Extractions.............. 177
12.3 Identification of Soil Clays by Infrared
Spectroscopy................................... 179
12.4 Identification of Soil Clays by Thermal
Analyses.......................................... 179
12.5 Identification of Soil Clays by Electron
Microscopy..................................... 179
12.6 Analysis of Soil Clays by Other
Techniques.................................................. 180
12.7 Quantitative
Analyses.....................................................................................
180
References.................................................................................................................
181
Chapter 13 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size
Effects.............................................. 185
13.1 Soil Clays and Surface
Areas.........................................................................
185
13.2 Effect of Associations of Clays on Surface
Areas.......................................... 186
13.2.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Surface
Areas...................................... 186
13.2.2 Effect of Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and Hydroxides
on Surface
Areas...............................................................................
187
13.3 Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays.....................................................................
187
13.4 Effect of Associations upon Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays....................... 187
13.5 Effects of Particle
Size...................................................................................
190
13.6 Integration: Importance of Phenomena; Limitations of
Measurements......... 191
References.................................................................................................................
192
Chapter 14 Role of Soil Clays in Agriculture, the Environment and Society
............................ 195
14.1 Plant
Nutrition................................................................................................
195
14.2 Soil Structure and Water Holding and
Supply............................................... 196
14.3 Formation and Stabilisation of
Pores............................................................. 198
14.4 Aggregation, Pores and Soil
Quality..............................................................200
14.5 Bulk Soil Physical
Properties.........................................................................
201
14.6 Carbon
Sequestration.....................................................................................208
14.7 Pollution and Its
Remediation........................................................................
210
14.8
Medicine.........................................................................................................
212
14.9
Forensics.........................................................................................................
213
14.10 Archaeology and Environmental
History...................................................... 214
References.................................................................................................................
215
Chapter 15
Summary...................................................................................................................
221
15.1 Soils (From Chapter
1)...................................................................................
221
15.2 Clays (From Chapter
2)..................................................................................
221
15.3 Formation of Clays in Soils (From Chapters
3-7).........................................222
15.4 Types of Clays and Their Origins (From Chapters 8 and
9)..........................224
15.5 Associations of Clays in Soils (From Chapter
10).........................................226
15.6 Extraction of Clays from Soil, and Their Identification and
Quantification (From Chapters 11 and
12).....................................................228
15.7 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size Effects (From Chapter
13).........229
15.8 Role of Soil Clays in Applications in Agriculture, the Environment and
Society (From Chapter
14).............................................................................229
15.9
Résumé...........................................................................................................
231
Bibliography..............................................................................................................
232
Annex: Simplified Methods for the Interpretation of X-Ray Diffraction
Diagrams of Soil Clay
Assemblages...............................................................................................
233
Index...............................................................................................................................................245
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................
xiii
Authors............................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction and
Definitions.........................................................................................1
1.1
Soil......................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Origin of Soils and Clays in Geological
Time............................................2
1.3 Weathering as the Origin of (Most)
Soils...........................................................3
1.4 From Rock to Soil: The Biological Factor in the Initial Stages of Rock
Alteration and Soil
Formation............................................................................4
1.5 Soil
Science........................................................................................................7
1.6
Clays...................................................................................................................8
1.7 Clay Mineral
Formation.....................................................................................9
1.8 Soil Clay
Mineralogy.......................................................................................
12
1.9 A New Approach to the Study of Soil
Clays.................................................... 13
1.10 Soil
Classification.............................................................................................
14
References...................................................................................................................
14
Chapter 2 Soil Clays:
Mineralogy................................................................................................
17
2.1 Basic Structures of
Phyllosilicates...................................................................
17
2.2 Lattice
Substitutions.........................................................................................
19
2.3 Oxidation-Reduction
Effects............................................................................
21
2.4 Residual Charge on 2:1 Structure Due to Ionic Substitutions and Site
Occupation
.......................................................................................................
21
2.4.1 Names for 2:1 Structure Minerals in
Soils..........................................22
2.5 Charge Intensity and Interlayer Cation Complex
Types...................................24
2.6 Cation Exchange in Interlayer
Sites..................................................................24
2.7 Cation Exchange Sites on Clay Edges
.............................................................26
2.8 Pertinent Principles of Cation
Exchange..........................................................28
2.8.1 Cation-Water
Interaction....................................................................28
2.8.1.1 Cation-Water Interaction:
Summary...................................29
2.8.1.2 Selectivity among Ions in Solution: Summary....................30
2.8.1.3 Relations of Preference for Cations or Hydrogen Ions
(Cations):
Summary.............................................................30
2.8.1.4 Types of Exchanged Cation in Layer Silicate
Interlayers:
Summary..........................................................30
2.8.1.5 Cation Exchange on Edge Sites: Summary.........................30
2.8.2 Overall Effect of pH on Exchange (Capture or Loss) of Cations........
31
2.9 Effect of
Climate..............................................................................................
32
2.10 Mixed-Layered Clays
......................................................................................
32
2.11 Identification of Layer Silicate Clays (2:1 and 1:1 Structures) by
X-Ray
Diffraction........................................................................................................
33
2.12 Allophane and
Imogolite..................................................................................34
2.13 Iron Oxides, Hydroxides and
Oxyhydroxides.................................................. 35
2.13.1 Surface Reactions of Fe Oxides
.........................................................36
2.14 Aluminium Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and
Hydroxides......................................36
2.15 Manganese
Oxides...........................................................................................36
2.16 Silicon
Oxides..................................................................................................
37
2.17 Titanium
Oxides...............................................................................................37
2.18 Zirconium
Minerals..........................................................................................37
References...................................................................................................................37
Chapter 3 Geology: Defining the Starting Point for Soil and Clay
Formation............................ 41
3.1 The Geological
Cycle.......................................................................................
41
3.2 Geology of the Continental
Surfaces............................................................... 41
3.3 Primary Minerals in Rocks: Raw Material for
Alteration............................... 42
3.3.1
Silicates...............................................................................................
42
3.3.2
Non-Silicates.......................................................................................44
3.3.3 The Initial Production of Clays in
Weathering................................... 45
3.3.4 Geological Deposits, Rock Types and Clay
Minerals......................... 47
3.3.4.1
Rocks...................................................................................
47
3.3.4.2
Sediments............................................................................
47
3.3.4.3 Loess and
Dust....................................................................48
References...................................................................................................................
51
Chapter 4 Primary Minerals and Their Alteration by
Weathering.............................................. 53
4.1 Primary Minerals and Their Weathering Products
......................................... 53
4.1.1 Amphiboles, Pyroxenes and Olivines
................................................ 53
4.1.2
Serpentinites........................................................................................
53
4.1.3 Volcanic Glass
....................................................................................
53
4.1.4 Feldspars
.............................................................................................54
4.1.5 Micas
..................................................................................................54
4.1.6 Chlorites
.............................................................................................54
4.1.7 Heterogeneity of
Products...................................................................
55
4.2. Mechanisms of Alteration of Primary Minerals
............................................. 55
4.2.1
Oxidation.............................................................................................
55
4.2.2 Reaction Rates and Parameters Determining Alteration
as a Function of
Time..........................................................................56
4.2.3 Effects of
pH.......................................................................................56
References...................................................................................................................
57
Chapter 5 Driving Forces of
Alteration.......................................................................................
59
5.1
Climate.............................................................................................................
59
5.2
Topography.......................................................................................................
59
5.2.1 Interaction at the Water-Rock
Interface.............................................60
5.3 Geological
Parameters......................................................................................63
5.3.1 Alteration
Profile.................................................................................63
5.3.2 Rock Alteration by Pore
Water............................................................64
5.3.3 Movement of
Clays..............................................................................65
5.3.4 Geology and Alteration
......................................................................65
References...................................................................................................................68
Chapter 6 Chemistry of Alteration by
Weathering......................................................................69
6.1 Alteration
Context............................................................................................69
6.2 Chemical
Forces...............................................................................................69
6.3 Chemistry of Elements and Mineral
Stability.................................................. 70
6.4 Mechanisms of
Alteration................................................................................
71
6.4.1 Mineral Change: Loss of Mineralogical Identity
............................... 71
6.4.2
Dissolution...........................................................................................
72
6.4.3 Interaction by Diffusion and Ion
Exchange........................................ 72
6.4.4
Oxidation.............................................................................................
74
6.5 Formation of New
Clays...................................................................................
75
6.5.1 Crystal
Growth....................................................................................
75
6.5.2 Mineral Growth from Amorphous
Materials..................................... 75
6.5.3 Mineral
Transformation......................................................................
76
References...................................................................................................................77
Chapter 7 Formation of Clays in the Soil Zone of
Alteration...................................................... 79
7.1 Crystallisation from Incongruent
Dissolution.................................................. 79
7.2 Crystal Growth from Elements in
Solution......................................................80
7.2.1
Neogenesis...........................................................................................80
7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Explanation of Stability of Minerals....... 81
7.2.2 Transformation of
Minerals................................................................82
7.3 Effect of Plants on Soil Clay
Assemblages......................................................85
7.3.1 Transformation in Temperate
Climates...............................................86
7.3.2 Transformation of Pre-Existing Phyllosilicate Minerals of High
Temperature
Origin.............................................................................86
7.3.3 Formation of Mixed-Layered 2:1 Clays
.............................................87
7.3.4 Formation of Palygorskite and Sepiolite in
Soils................................88
7.3.5 Formation and Transformation of 2:1 to 1:1 Mixed-Layer
Clays........89
7.3.5.1 Interstratifications of Kaolinite and Smectite and
Their
Evolution....................................................................89
7.3.5.2
Halloysite-Smectites............................................................90
7.3.5.3 Interstratification of Kaolins with Other 2:1 Minerals........90
7.3.6 Crystallisation of 1:1 Clays in
Soils....................................................90
7.3.7 Formation of Oxyhydroxide Al- and Fe-Dominated Soil Clay
Assemblages
.......................................................................................92
7.3.8 Formation of Other
Oxides.................................................................93
7.3.9 Formation of Other Compounds in
Soils............................................94
7.3.10 Biology and Its Effect on Clays and Clay Associations in Soils
........94
7.3.10.1 Soil
Structure.......................................................................95
References...................................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Nature and Origin of Surface Soil
Clays.................................................................. 103
8.1 Illites
(2:1).......................................................................................................
103
8.2 Vermiculites
(2:1)...........................................................................................
103
8.3 Smectites
(2:1).................................................................................................
108
8.4 Mixed-Layered 2:1
Minerals..........................................................................
108
8.5 Kaolin-Smectites Interstratified
(1:1-2:1)....................................................... 113
8.6 Kaolinite
(1:1).................................................................................................
116
8.7 Halloysite
(1:1)................................................................................................
116
8.8 Allophane (1:2 to 1:1) and Imogolite
(1:2)...................................................... 121
8.9 Palygorskite and Sepiolite (2:1
Si:Mg)........................................................... 123
8.10 Oxides and Rarer
Minerals............................................................................
125
References.................................................................................................................
126
Chapter 9 The Importance of Climate in the Formation of Soil
Clays..................................... 133
9.1 Cold and Cool
Zones......................................................................................
134
9.2 Warm
Zone.....................................................................................................
135
9.3 Hot
Zone.........................................................................................................
136
9.4 Mechanisms of
Change..................................................................................
138
References.................................................................................................................
139
Chapter 10 Associations of Soil
Clays.........................................................................................
143
10.1 Organic
Matter...............................................................................................
143
10.2 Charges on Clay
Particles...............................................................................
144
10.3 Organo-Mineral
Interactions..........................................................................
146
10.4 Combined Indications on Links between Minerals and
SOM....................... 152
10.5 Formation and Stabilisation of
Microaggregates........................................... 153
10.6 Clay and Organic Aggregation and Soil
Structure......................................... 156
10.6.1 Organic Particle Size and Fixation on Different Clay-Sized
Particles (OM Content and Clay-Size
Fraction)................................ 156
10.6.2 Formation of Macroaggregates
........................................................ 157
10.6.3 Evolution of Aggregates with Rainfall Episodes
(Wetting and
Drying)........................................................................
158
10.6.4 Macroaggregates and Soil Structure: The Formation of
Fractures.........158
10.6.5 Change of Structure with Depth: Aggregation and Fractures..........
159
10.6.6 Organic Matter and Clay Structures and Retention
of Capillary
Water.............................................................................
159
References.................................................................................................................
160
Chapter 11 Occurrence and Extraction of Soil Clays
................................................................. 167
11.1 Clay
Associations...........................................................................................
167
11.2 Extraction of Soil
Clays..................................................................................
170
11.3 Recommended
Procedures.............................................................................
174
References.................................................................................................................
175
Chapter 12 Identification and Quantification of Clay Minerals in
Soils..................................... 177
12.1 Identification of Soil Clays by X-Ray
Diffraction.......................................... 177
12.2 Identification and Analyses of Soil Clays by Chemical
Extractions.............. 177
12.3 Identification of Soil Clays by Infrared
Spectroscopy................................... 179
12.4 Identification of Soil Clays by Thermal
Analyses.......................................... 179
12.5 Identification of Soil Clays by Electron
Microscopy..................................... 179
12.6 Analysis of Soil Clays by Other
Techniques.................................................. 180
12.7 Quantitative
Analyses.....................................................................................
180
References.................................................................................................................
181
Chapter 13 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size
Effects.............................................. 185
13.1 Soil Clays and Surface
Areas.........................................................................
185
13.2 Effect of Associations of Clays on Surface
Areas.......................................... 186
13.2.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Surface
Areas...................................... 186
13.2.2 Effect of Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and Hydroxides
on Surface
Areas...............................................................................
187
13.3 Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays.....................................................................
187
13.4 Effect of Associations upon Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays....................... 187
13.5 Effects of Particle
Size...................................................................................
190
13.6 Integration: Importance of Phenomena; Limitations of
Measurements......... 191
References.................................................................................................................
192
Chapter 14 Role of Soil Clays in Agriculture, the Environment and Society
............................ 195
14.1 Plant
Nutrition................................................................................................
195
14.2 Soil Structure and Water Holding and
Supply............................................... 196
14.3 Formation and Stabilisation of
Pores............................................................. 198
14.4 Aggregation, Pores and Soil
Quality..............................................................200
14.5 Bulk Soil Physical
Properties.........................................................................
201
14.6 Carbon
Sequestration.....................................................................................208
14.7 Pollution and Its
Remediation........................................................................
210
14.8
Medicine.........................................................................................................
212
14.9
Forensics.........................................................................................................
213
14.10 Archaeology and Environmental
History...................................................... 214
References.................................................................................................................
215
Chapter 15
Summary...................................................................................................................
221
15.1 Soils (From Chapter
1)...................................................................................
221
15.2 Clays (From Chapter
2)..................................................................................
221
15.3 Formation of Clays in Soils (From Chapters
3-7).........................................222
15.4 Types of Clays and Their Origins (From Chapters 8 and
9)..........................224
15.5 Associations of Clays in Soils (From Chapter
10).........................................226
15.6 Extraction of Clays from Soil, and Their Identification and
Quantification (From Chapters 11 and
12).....................................................228
15.7 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size Effects (From Chapter
13).........229
15.8 Role of Soil Clays in Applications in Agriculture, the Environment and
Society (From Chapter
14).............................................................................229
15.9
Résumé...........................................................................................................
231
Bibliography..............................................................................................................
232
Annex: Simplified Methods for the Interpretation of X-Ray Diffraction
Diagrams of Soil Clay
Assemblages...............................................................................................
233
Index...............................................................................................................................................245
Preface............................................................................................................................................
xiii
Authors............................................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction and
Definitions.........................................................................................1
1.1
Soil......................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Origin of Soils and Clays in Geological
Time............................................2
1.3 Weathering as the Origin of (Most)
Soils...........................................................3
1.4 From Rock to Soil: The Biological Factor in the Initial Stages of Rock
Alteration and Soil
Formation............................................................................4
1.5 Soil
Science........................................................................................................7
1.6
Clays...................................................................................................................8
1.7 Clay Mineral
Formation.....................................................................................9
1.8 Soil Clay
Mineralogy.......................................................................................
12
1.9 A New Approach to the Study of Soil
Clays.................................................... 13
1.10 Soil
Classification.............................................................................................
14
References...................................................................................................................
14
Chapter 2 Soil Clays:
Mineralogy................................................................................................
17
2.1 Basic Structures of
Phyllosilicates...................................................................
17
2.2 Lattice
Substitutions.........................................................................................
19
2.3 Oxidation-Reduction
Effects............................................................................
21
2.4 Residual Charge on 2:1 Structure Due to Ionic Substitutions and Site
Occupation
.......................................................................................................
21
2.4.1 Names for 2:1 Structure Minerals in
Soils..........................................22
2.5 Charge Intensity and Interlayer Cation Complex
Types...................................24
2.6 Cation Exchange in Interlayer
Sites..................................................................24
2.7 Cation Exchange Sites on Clay Edges
.............................................................26
2.8 Pertinent Principles of Cation
Exchange..........................................................28
2.8.1 Cation-Water
Interaction....................................................................28
2.8.1.1 Cation-Water Interaction:
Summary...................................29
2.8.1.2 Selectivity among Ions in Solution: Summary....................30
2.8.1.3 Relations of Preference for Cations or Hydrogen Ions
(Cations):
Summary.............................................................30
2.8.1.4 Types of Exchanged Cation in Layer Silicate
Interlayers:
Summary..........................................................30
2.8.1.5 Cation Exchange on Edge Sites: Summary.........................30
2.8.2 Overall Effect of pH on Exchange (Capture or Loss) of Cations........
31
2.9 Effect of
Climate..............................................................................................
32
2.10 Mixed-Layered Clays
......................................................................................
32
2.11 Identification of Layer Silicate Clays (2:1 and 1:1 Structures) by
X-Ray
Diffraction........................................................................................................
33
2.12 Allophane and
Imogolite..................................................................................34
2.13 Iron Oxides, Hydroxides and
Oxyhydroxides.................................................. 35
2.13.1 Surface Reactions of Fe Oxides
.........................................................36
2.14 Aluminium Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and
Hydroxides......................................36
2.15 Manganese
Oxides...........................................................................................36
2.16 Silicon
Oxides..................................................................................................
37
2.17 Titanium
Oxides...............................................................................................37
2.18 Zirconium
Minerals..........................................................................................37
References...................................................................................................................37
Chapter 3 Geology: Defining the Starting Point for Soil and Clay
Formation............................ 41
3.1 The Geological
Cycle.......................................................................................
41
3.2 Geology of the Continental
Surfaces............................................................... 41
3.3 Primary Minerals in Rocks: Raw Material for
Alteration............................... 42
3.3.1
Silicates...............................................................................................
42
3.3.2
Non-Silicates.......................................................................................44
3.3.3 The Initial Production of Clays in
Weathering................................... 45
3.3.4 Geological Deposits, Rock Types and Clay
Minerals......................... 47
3.3.4.1
Rocks...................................................................................
47
3.3.4.2
Sediments............................................................................
47
3.3.4.3 Loess and
Dust....................................................................48
References...................................................................................................................
51
Chapter 4 Primary Minerals and Their Alteration by
Weathering.............................................. 53
4.1 Primary Minerals and Their Weathering Products
......................................... 53
4.1.1 Amphiboles, Pyroxenes and Olivines
................................................ 53
4.1.2
Serpentinites........................................................................................
53
4.1.3 Volcanic Glass
....................................................................................
53
4.1.4 Feldspars
.............................................................................................54
4.1.5 Micas
..................................................................................................54
4.1.6 Chlorites
.............................................................................................54
4.1.7 Heterogeneity of
Products...................................................................
55
4.2. Mechanisms of Alteration of Primary Minerals
............................................. 55
4.2.1
Oxidation.............................................................................................
55
4.2.2 Reaction Rates and Parameters Determining Alteration
as a Function of
Time..........................................................................56
4.2.3 Effects of
pH.......................................................................................56
References...................................................................................................................
57
Chapter 5 Driving Forces of
Alteration.......................................................................................
59
5.1
Climate.............................................................................................................
59
5.2
Topography.......................................................................................................
59
5.2.1 Interaction at the Water-Rock
Interface.............................................60
5.3 Geological
Parameters......................................................................................63
5.3.1 Alteration
Profile.................................................................................63
5.3.2 Rock Alteration by Pore
Water............................................................64
5.3.3 Movement of
Clays..............................................................................65
5.3.4 Geology and Alteration
......................................................................65
References...................................................................................................................68
Chapter 6 Chemistry of Alteration by
Weathering......................................................................69
6.1 Alteration
Context............................................................................................69
6.2 Chemical
Forces...............................................................................................69
6.3 Chemistry of Elements and Mineral
Stability.................................................. 70
6.4 Mechanisms of
Alteration................................................................................
71
6.4.1 Mineral Change: Loss of Mineralogical Identity
............................... 71
6.4.2
Dissolution...........................................................................................
72
6.4.3 Interaction by Diffusion and Ion
Exchange........................................ 72
6.4.4
Oxidation.............................................................................................
74
6.5 Formation of New
Clays...................................................................................
75
6.5.1 Crystal
Growth....................................................................................
75
6.5.2 Mineral Growth from Amorphous
Materials..................................... 75
6.5.3 Mineral
Transformation......................................................................
76
References...................................................................................................................77
Chapter 7 Formation of Clays in the Soil Zone of
Alteration...................................................... 79
7.1 Crystallisation from Incongruent
Dissolution.................................................. 79
7.2 Crystal Growth from Elements in
Solution......................................................80
7.2.1
Neogenesis...........................................................................................80
7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Explanation of Stability of Minerals....... 81
7.2.2 Transformation of
Minerals................................................................82
7.3 Effect of Plants on Soil Clay
Assemblages......................................................85
7.3.1 Transformation in Temperate
Climates...............................................86
7.3.2 Transformation of Pre-Existing Phyllosilicate Minerals of High
Temperature
Origin.............................................................................86
7.3.3 Formation of Mixed-Layered 2:1 Clays
.............................................87
7.3.4 Formation of Palygorskite and Sepiolite in
Soils................................88
7.3.5 Formation and Transformation of 2:1 to 1:1 Mixed-Layer
Clays........89
7.3.5.1 Interstratifications of Kaolinite and Smectite and
Their
Evolution....................................................................89
7.3.5.2
Halloysite-Smectites............................................................90
7.3.5.3 Interstratification of Kaolins with Other 2:1 Minerals........90
7.3.6 Crystallisation of 1:1 Clays in
Soils....................................................90
7.3.7 Formation of Oxyhydroxide Al- and Fe-Dominated Soil Clay
Assemblages
.......................................................................................92
7.3.8 Formation of Other
Oxides.................................................................93
7.3.9 Formation of Other Compounds in
Soils............................................94
7.3.10 Biology and Its Effect on Clays and Clay Associations in Soils
........94
7.3.10.1 Soil
Structure.......................................................................95
References...................................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Nature and Origin of Surface Soil
Clays.................................................................. 103
8.1 Illites
(2:1).......................................................................................................
103
8.2 Vermiculites
(2:1)...........................................................................................
103
8.3 Smectites
(2:1).................................................................................................
108
8.4 Mixed-Layered 2:1
Minerals..........................................................................
108
8.5 Kaolin-Smectites Interstratified
(1:1-2:1)....................................................... 113
8.6 Kaolinite
(1:1).................................................................................................
116
8.7 Halloysite
(1:1)................................................................................................
116
8.8 Allophane (1:2 to 1:1) and Imogolite
(1:2)...................................................... 121
8.9 Palygorskite and Sepiolite (2:1
Si:Mg)........................................................... 123
8.10 Oxides and Rarer
Minerals............................................................................
125
References.................................................................................................................
126
Chapter 9 The Importance of Climate in the Formation of Soil
Clays..................................... 133
9.1 Cold and Cool
Zones......................................................................................
134
9.2 Warm
Zone.....................................................................................................
135
9.3 Hot
Zone.........................................................................................................
136
9.4 Mechanisms of
Change..................................................................................
138
References.................................................................................................................
139
Chapter 10 Associations of Soil
Clays.........................................................................................
143
10.1 Organic
Matter...............................................................................................
143
10.2 Charges on Clay
Particles...............................................................................
144
10.3 Organo-Mineral
Interactions..........................................................................
146
10.4 Combined Indications on Links between Minerals and
SOM....................... 152
10.5 Formation and Stabilisation of
Microaggregates........................................... 153
10.6 Clay and Organic Aggregation and Soil
Structure......................................... 156
10.6.1 Organic Particle Size and Fixation on Different Clay-Sized
Particles (OM Content and Clay-Size
Fraction)................................ 156
10.6.2 Formation of Macroaggregates
........................................................ 157
10.6.3 Evolution of Aggregates with Rainfall Episodes
(Wetting and
Drying)........................................................................
158
10.6.4 Macroaggregates and Soil Structure: The Formation of
Fractures.........158
10.6.5 Change of Structure with Depth: Aggregation and Fractures..........
159
10.6.6 Organic Matter and Clay Structures and Retention
of Capillary
Water.............................................................................
159
References.................................................................................................................
160
Chapter 11 Occurrence and Extraction of Soil Clays
................................................................. 167
11.1 Clay
Associations...........................................................................................
167
11.2 Extraction of Soil
Clays..................................................................................
170
11.3 Recommended
Procedures.............................................................................
174
References.................................................................................................................
175
Chapter 12 Identification and Quantification of Clay Minerals in
Soils..................................... 177
12.1 Identification of Soil Clays by X-Ray
Diffraction.......................................... 177
12.2 Identification and Analyses of Soil Clays by Chemical
Extractions.............. 177
12.3 Identification of Soil Clays by Infrared
Spectroscopy................................... 179
12.4 Identification of Soil Clays by Thermal
Analyses.......................................... 179
12.5 Identification of Soil Clays by Electron
Microscopy..................................... 179
12.6 Analysis of Soil Clays by Other
Techniques.................................................. 180
12.7 Quantitative
Analyses.....................................................................................
180
References.................................................................................................................
181
Chapter 13 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size
Effects.............................................. 185
13.1 Soil Clays and Surface
Areas.........................................................................
185
13.2 Effect of Associations of Clays on Surface
Areas.......................................... 186
13.2.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Surface
Areas...................................... 186
13.2.2 Effect of Oxides, Oxyhydroxides and Hydroxides
on Surface
Areas...............................................................................
187
13.3 Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays.....................................................................
187
13.4 Effect of Associations upon Charges on Soils and Soil
Clays....................... 187
13.5 Effects of Particle
Size...................................................................................
190
13.6 Integration: Importance of Phenomena; Limitations of
Measurements......... 191
References.................................................................................................................
192
Chapter 14 Role of Soil Clays in Agriculture, the Environment and Society
............................ 195
14.1 Plant
Nutrition................................................................................................
195
14.2 Soil Structure and Water Holding and
Supply............................................... 196
14.3 Formation and Stabilisation of
Pores............................................................. 198
14.4 Aggregation, Pores and Soil
Quality..............................................................200
14.5 Bulk Soil Physical
Properties.........................................................................
201
14.6 Carbon
Sequestration.....................................................................................208
14.7 Pollution and Its
Remediation........................................................................
210
14.8
Medicine.........................................................................................................
212
14.9
Forensics.........................................................................................................
213
14.10 Archaeology and Environmental
History...................................................... 214
References.................................................................................................................
215
Chapter 15
Summary...................................................................................................................
221
15.1 Soils (From Chapter
1)...................................................................................
221
15.2 Clays (From Chapter
2)..................................................................................
221
15.3 Formation of Clays in Soils (From Chapters
3-7).........................................222
15.4 Types of Clays and Their Origins (From Chapters 8 and
9)..........................224
15.5 Associations of Clays in Soils (From Chapter
10).........................................226
15.6 Extraction of Clays from Soil, and Their Identification and
Quantification (From Chapters 11 and
12).....................................................228
15.7 Surfaces, Surface Reactions and Particle Size Effects (From Chapter
13).........229
15.8 Role of Soil Clays in Applications in Agriculture, the Environment and
Society (From Chapter
14).............................................................................229
15.9
Résumé...........................................................................................................
231
Bibliography..............................................................................................................
232
Annex: Simplified Methods for the Interpretation of X-Ray Diffraction
Diagrams of Soil Clay
Assemblages...............................................................................................
233
Index...............................................................................................................................................245