RONALD A. NELSON specializes in evaluation of naturally fractured reservoirs and structural geology. He has over 40 years of experience in the oil and gas industry, working in technical specialties, research, and exploration for Amoco, BP, and as an independent consultant. Over the years Dr Nelson has taught over 100 industry courses in fractured reservoirs and structural geology for a variety of organizations domestically and internationally. He has been an AAPG "Distinguished Lecturer" twice, and an "SPE Distinguished Author" once.
Inhaltsangabe
Foreword xi Symbols and Abbreviations xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Purpose and Scope 1 2 What is a Static Conceptual Fracture Model and Why Do We Build It? 3 3 Fracture Model Creation Workflow 9 4 Gathering Natural Fracture Orientation and Intensity Data Directly 13 4.1 Outcrop Based Data 13 4.1.1 Requirements for Outcrop Selection 14 4.1.2 Data to Be Collected 14 4.1.3 What's Real and Not 16 4.2 Core Based Data 16 4.2.1 Types of Core 18 4.2.2 Data to Be Collected 20 4.2.3 What's Real and Not 22 4.2.4 Quantification 27 5 Gathering Natural Fracture Orientation and Intensity Data Indirectly 35 5.1 Bore Hole Image Log Based Data 35 5.1.1 Tool Types and Resolution 36 5.1.2 Data to Be Collected 38 5.1.3 Quantification 38 5.2 Remote Sensing based Data 40 5.2.1 Surface Based 40 5.2.2 Basement Based Geophysical Methods (Potential Fields or Gravity and Magnetic Data) 42 5.3 3D Seismic Fracture Data Collection 43 5.3.1 Detailed Structural Geometry 44 5.3.2 Seismic Attributes 44 5.3.3 Passive Seismic and Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring 47 6 Analyzing the Natural Fracture Data Once Gathered 51 6.1 Correcting for the Difference Between Measurement Orientation and Fracture Set Intensity 51 6.2 Calibration 51 6.3 Determining Natural Fracture Origin from Fracture Distributions and Morphology 59 6.4 Mapping Natural fracture Orientation and Intensity 67 7 Gathering and Analyzing Structural Data 71 7.1 Structural Surface Maps and Sections 71 7.2 Analysis of Structural Surfaces 71 7.2.1 Discontinuity Analysis 71 7.2.2 Lineation Analysis 75 8 Gathering Constraints on Fracture Aperture 81 8.1 Unstressed 82 8.2 Partially Stressed 85 8.3 Fully Stressed 85 8.4 How the Various Aperture Measures Go Together 89 9 Creation of Natural Fracture Scaling Laws 91 10 Gathering and Analyzing Mechanical Property Distribution Data 95 10.1 Rock Modulus and How It Effects Deformation and Fracturing 96 10.2 Rigidity Modulus Distributions 100 10.2.1 Vertical Distribution in Wells 100 10.2.2 Horizontal Distribution in Wells 102 10.2.3 Map Distributions by Unit and Sub units 103 11 Locating Fracture Corridors 105 12 Rock Anisotropy and its Importance in Determining Dominant Fracture Orientation and Relative Intensity 111 13 Determine the In situ Stress Directions and Magnitudes and their Variation 115 13.1 SHmax Directions and Mapping 116 13.2 SHmax Directions with Depth 119 14 Production Calibration 123 15 Determining the Fractured Reservoir Classification and, Therefore, Which Simulation Style is Most Appropriate 129 16 Use of Reservoir Analogs 135 17 The Importance of 3D Visualization in Data Integration and Static Fracture Model Creation 139 18 Thoughts on History Matching of Simulation Results 143 19 Preparing the Fracture Data for Input to the Gridded Model 145 20 Discussion of Error and Uncertainty in the Modeling Process 149 21 Published Examples of the Process 151 22 Final Comments 155 Appendix A Detailed Static Fracture Modeling Workflow 157 Appendix B How we Use Various Seismic Attributes to Predict Natural Fracture Intensity in the Subsurface, After Nelson (2006) 169 Appendix C How I Learned to Interpret Natural Fractures in Core 173 References 175 Index 183
Foreword xi Symbols and Abbreviations xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Purpose and Scope 1 2 What is a Static Conceptual Fracture Model and Why Do We Build It? 3 3 Fracture Model Creation Workflow 9 4 Gathering Natural Fracture Orientation and Intensity Data Directly 13 4.1 Outcrop Based Data 13 4.1.1 Requirements for Outcrop Selection 14 4.1.2 Data to Be Collected 14 4.1.3 What's Real and Not 16 4.2 Core Based Data 16 4.2.1 Types of Core 18 4.2.2 Data to Be Collected 20 4.2.3 What's Real and Not 22 4.2.4 Quantification 27 5 Gathering Natural Fracture Orientation and Intensity Data Indirectly 35 5.1 Bore Hole Image Log Based Data 35 5.1.1 Tool Types and Resolution 36 5.1.2 Data to Be Collected 38 5.1.3 Quantification 38 5.2 Remote Sensing based Data 40 5.2.1 Surface Based 40 5.2.2 Basement Based Geophysical Methods (Potential Fields or Gravity and Magnetic Data) 42 5.3 3D Seismic Fracture Data Collection 43 5.3.1 Detailed Structural Geometry 44 5.3.2 Seismic Attributes 44 5.3.3 Passive Seismic and Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring 47 6 Analyzing the Natural Fracture Data Once Gathered 51 6.1 Correcting for the Difference Between Measurement Orientation and Fracture Set Intensity 51 6.2 Calibration 51 6.3 Determining Natural Fracture Origin from Fracture Distributions and Morphology 59 6.4 Mapping Natural fracture Orientation and Intensity 67 7 Gathering and Analyzing Structural Data 71 7.1 Structural Surface Maps and Sections 71 7.2 Analysis of Structural Surfaces 71 7.2.1 Discontinuity Analysis 71 7.2.2 Lineation Analysis 75 8 Gathering Constraints on Fracture Aperture 81 8.1 Unstressed 82 8.2 Partially Stressed 85 8.3 Fully Stressed 85 8.4 How the Various Aperture Measures Go Together 89 9 Creation of Natural Fracture Scaling Laws 91 10 Gathering and Analyzing Mechanical Property Distribution Data 95 10.1 Rock Modulus and How It Effects Deformation and Fracturing 96 10.2 Rigidity Modulus Distributions 100 10.2.1 Vertical Distribution in Wells 100 10.2.2 Horizontal Distribution in Wells 102 10.2.3 Map Distributions by Unit and Sub units 103 11 Locating Fracture Corridors 105 12 Rock Anisotropy and its Importance in Determining Dominant Fracture Orientation and Relative Intensity 111 13 Determine the In situ Stress Directions and Magnitudes and their Variation 115 13.1 SHmax Directions and Mapping 116 13.2 SHmax Directions with Depth 119 14 Production Calibration 123 15 Determining the Fractured Reservoir Classification and, Therefore, Which Simulation Style is Most Appropriate 129 16 Use of Reservoir Analogs 135 17 The Importance of 3D Visualization in Data Integration and Static Fracture Model Creation 139 18 Thoughts on History Matching of Simulation Results 143 19 Preparing the Fracture Data for Input to the Gridded Model 145 20 Discussion of Error and Uncertainty in the Modeling Process 149 21 Published Examples of the Process 151 22 Final Comments 155 Appendix A Detailed Static Fracture Modeling Workflow 157 Appendix B How we Use Various Seismic Attributes to Predict Natural Fracture Intensity in the Subsurface, After Nelson (2006) 169 Appendix C How I Learned to Interpret Natural Fractures in Core 173 References 175 Index 183
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