In their efforts to stabilize Afghanistan, international actors have collaborated with private security companies, the Afghan Public Protection Force, militias and auxiliary police forces. But it has become ever clearer that the creation, training and financing of such ‘force multipliers’ can have serious negative consequences for the local population, ranging from civilian casualties to economic exploitation. Problems with vetting, regulation, command, control and prosecution have highlighted the dangers inherent in the proliferation of pro-government armed groups. The authors of this report conclude that the Afghan population would be better served by concentrating international resources on creating effective and accountable Afghan military and police forces instead of supporting irregular armed groups.