Fiber Optic Sensors (eBook, PDF)
An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists
Redaktion: Udd, Eric; Spillman, William B.
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Fiber Optic Sensors (eBook, PDF)
An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists
Redaktion: Udd, Eric; Spillman, William B.
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FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Discover the latest in fiber optic sensors and their applications in this new edition Fiber-optic sensors are a powerful class of sensor that uses high-bandwidth optical fibers to convey a large amount of measured information through a single fiber. The advantages of such a mode of measurement are clear: they are intrinsically safe in explosive environments (no sparks), lightweight, compact, robust, and potentially inexpensive. As a result, their uses are manifold for a wide range of physical and chemical phenomena including temperature, strain, pressure, acoustic fields,…mehr
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FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Discover the latest in fiber optic sensors and their applications in this new edition Fiber-optic sensors are a powerful class of sensor that uses high-bandwidth optical fibers to convey a large amount of measured information through a single fiber. The advantages of such a mode of measurement are clear: they are intrinsically safe in explosive environments (no sparks), lightweight, compact, robust, and potentially inexpensive. As a result, their uses are manifold for a wide range of physical and chemical phenomena including temperature, strain, pressure, acoustic fields, position, velocity, rotation, acceleration, electrical current, liquid level, biochemical composition, and chemical concentration. Fiber Optic Sensors introduces and familiarizes the reader with a broad range of fiber optic sensor techniques and applications. The latest edition of this popular text builds upon the sound introductions to the fundamentals of the topic provided by earlier editions by introducing the latest technologies that have been developed in recent years. Gathering the latest research and publications on the subject in one place, the book provides a comprehensive look at fiber optic sensors with an eye to what's new in the field. Readers of Fiber Optic Sensors' third edition will also find: * An exploration of the technology within new applications in areas such as aerospace, defense, oil and gas, medical, electric power, manufacturing, environmental, and robotics * Updated chapters on the emergency of interferometric sensors, distributed sensing, and critical components * A new and fully-updated comprehensive index Fiber Optic Sensors is a useful reference for engineers, scientists, technical managers, as well as advanced undergraduate and graduate students.
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Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 622
- Erscheinungstermin: 26. März 2024
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781119678793
- Artikelnr.: 70283387
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 622
- Erscheinungstermin: 26. März 2024
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781119678793
- Artikelnr.: 70283387
Eric Udd is President of Columbia Gorge Research, a company he founded in 2005 to promote fiber optic sensor technology. His work in this area since 1977 has involved performance on over 100 projects, 54 patents and over 200 papers. Udd is a Fellow of SPIE, and OSA (Optica). William B. Spillman, Jr. PhD, is an independent R&D consultant and a senior scientist at Columbia Gorge Research. With Eric Udd and others, he helped found the field field of fiber optic sensing in the late 1970's. He has 46 US patents, 182 publications and 5975 citations (Google Scholar).
ABOUT THE EDITORS xv
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
PREFACE xix
1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1
Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.
2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7
Christopher Emslie
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9
2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13
2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26
3 LIGHT SOURCES 57
Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57
3.3 Coherence Length 63
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64
3.5 Summary 77
4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79
William B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Theoretical Background 79
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88
4.5 Noise 88
4.6 Spectral Detection 95
4.7 Summary 98
5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99
Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99
5.3 Bulk Modulators 102
5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108
5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122
6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125
Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 125
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129
6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 130
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 134
7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139
William B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Theoretical Background 139
7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160
7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172
8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING
RESONATOR 175
Eric Udd
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175
8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180
8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183
8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187
8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber
Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189
8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192
9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201
Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201
9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206
9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208
10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON
INTERFEROMETERS 213
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Principle of Operation 214
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235
10.4 Applications 240
10.5 Summary 246
11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION
249
Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Signal Fading 250
11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253
11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255
11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257
12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263
Alan D. Kersey
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Distributed Sensing 264
12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273
12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277
13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293
Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical
Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 294
13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295
13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302
13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316
13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330
13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333
13.8 Conclusion 334
14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED
POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343
X. Steve Yao
14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed
Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 344
14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed
Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 355
14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization
Scrambled OFDR 368
14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369
15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375
Eric Udd
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376
15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385
15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures
388
15.5 Conclusions 393
16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397
Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel
16.1 Introduction 397
16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398
16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401
16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410
16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414
16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419
16.7 Summary 446
17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT
SENSING 449
Stephen Mihailov
17.1 Introduction 449
17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451
17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454
17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462
17.5 Summary 471
18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479
Daniele Inaudi
18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479
18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481
18.3 Bridges 482
18.4 Buildings 486
18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487
18.6 Tunnels 489
18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491
18.8 Conclusions 492
19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495
Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496
19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber
500
19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502
19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504
19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509
19.7 Conclusions 509
20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513
William B. Spillman Jr.
20.1 Introduction 513
20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518
20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520
20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530
20.6 Summary 542
21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545
Frank Bucholtz
21.1 Introduction 545
21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546
21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554
21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569
22 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573
John W. Berthold III
22.1 Introduction 573
22.2 Background 574
22.3 Temperature Measurement 575
22.4 Pressure Measurement 579
22.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 581
22.6 Flow Measurement 582
22.7 Position Measurement 584
22.8 Vibration Measurement 584
22.9 Chemical Analysis 585
22.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 588
22.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 589
22.12 Summary 590
References 590
INDEX 593
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
PREFACE xix
1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1
Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.
2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7
Christopher Emslie
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9
2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13
2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26
3 LIGHT SOURCES 57
Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57
3.3 Coherence Length 63
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64
3.5 Summary 77
4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79
William B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Theoretical Background 79
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88
4.5 Noise 88
4.6 Spectral Detection 95
4.7 Summary 98
5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99
Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99
5.3 Bulk Modulators 102
5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108
5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122
6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125
Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 125
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129
6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 130
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 134
7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139
William B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Theoretical Background 139
7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160
7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172
8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING
RESONATOR 175
Eric Udd
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175
8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180
8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183
8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187
8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber
Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189
8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192
9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201
Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201
9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206
9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208
10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON
INTERFEROMETERS 213
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Principle of Operation 214
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235
10.4 Applications 240
10.5 Summary 246
11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION
249
Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Signal Fading 250
11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253
11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255
11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257
12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263
Alan D. Kersey
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Distributed Sensing 264
12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273
12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277
13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293
Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical
Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 294
13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295
13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302
13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316
13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330
13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333
13.8 Conclusion 334
14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED
POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343
X. Steve Yao
14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed
Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 344
14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed
Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 355
14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization
Scrambled OFDR 368
14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369
15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375
Eric Udd
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376
15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385
15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures
388
15.5 Conclusions 393
16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397
Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel
16.1 Introduction 397
16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398
16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401
16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410
16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414
16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419
16.7 Summary 446
17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT
SENSING 449
Stephen Mihailov
17.1 Introduction 449
17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451
17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454
17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462
17.5 Summary 471
18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479
Daniele Inaudi
18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479
18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481
18.3 Bridges 482
18.4 Buildings 486
18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487
18.6 Tunnels 489
18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491
18.8 Conclusions 492
19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495
Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496
19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber
500
19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502
19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504
19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509
19.7 Conclusions 509
20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513
William B. Spillman Jr.
20.1 Introduction 513
20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518
20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520
20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530
20.6 Summary 542
21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545
Frank Bucholtz
21.1 Introduction 545
21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546
21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554
21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569
22 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573
John W. Berthold III
22.1 Introduction 573
22.2 Background 574
22.3 Temperature Measurement 575
22.4 Pressure Measurement 579
22.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 581
22.6 Flow Measurement 582
22.7 Position Measurement 584
22.8 Vibration Measurement 584
22.9 Chemical Analysis 585
22.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 588
22.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 589
22.12 Summary 590
References 590
INDEX 593
ABOUT THE EDITORS xv
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
PREFACE xix
1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1
Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.
2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7
Christopher Emslie
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9
2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13
2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26
3 LIGHT SOURCES 57
Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57
3.3 Coherence Length 63
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64
3.5 Summary 77
4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79
William B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Theoretical Background 79
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88
4.5 Noise 88
4.6 Spectral Detection 95
4.7 Summary 98
5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99
Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99
5.3 Bulk Modulators 102
5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108
5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122
6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125
Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 125
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129
6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 130
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 134
7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139
William B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Theoretical Background 139
7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160
7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172
8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING
RESONATOR 175
Eric Udd
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175
8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180
8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183
8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187
8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber
Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189
8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192
9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201
Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201
9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206
9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208
10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON
INTERFEROMETERS 213
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Principle of Operation 214
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235
10.4 Applications 240
10.5 Summary 246
11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION
249
Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Signal Fading 250
11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253
11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255
11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257
12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263
Alan D. Kersey
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Distributed Sensing 264
12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273
12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277
13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293
Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical
Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 294
13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295
13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302
13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316
13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330
13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333
13.8 Conclusion 334
14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED
POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343
X. Steve Yao
14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed
Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 344
14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed
Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 355
14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization
Scrambled OFDR 368
14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369
15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375
Eric Udd
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376
15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385
15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures
388
15.5 Conclusions 393
16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397
Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel
16.1 Introduction 397
16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398
16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401
16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410
16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414
16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419
16.7 Summary 446
17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT
SENSING 449
Stephen Mihailov
17.1 Introduction 449
17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451
17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454
17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462
17.5 Summary 471
18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479
Daniele Inaudi
18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479
18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481
18.3 Bridges 482
18.4 Buildings 486
18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487
18.6 Tunnels 489
18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491
18.8 Conclusions 492
19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495
Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496
19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber
500
19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502
19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504
19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509
19.7 Conclusions 509
20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513
William B. Spillman Jr.
20.1 Introduction 513
20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518
20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520
20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530
20.6 Summary 542
21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545
Frank Bucholtz
21.1 Introduction 545
21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546
21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554
21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569
22 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573
John W. Berthold III
22.1 Introduction 573
22.2 Background 574
22.3 Temperature Measurement 575
22.4 Pressure Measurement 579
22.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 581
22.6 Flow Measurement 582
22.7 Position Measurement 584
22.8 Vibration Measurement 584
22.9 Chemical Analysis 585
22.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 588
22.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 589
22.12 Summary 590
References 590
INDEX 593
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
PREFACE xix
1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1
Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.
2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7
Christopher Emslie
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9
2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13
2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26
3 LIGHT SOURCES 57
Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57
3.3 Coherence Length 63
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64
3.5 Summary 77
4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79
William B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Theoretical Background 79
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88
4.5 Noise 88
4.6 Spectral Detection 95
4.7 Summary 98
5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99
Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99
5.3 Bulk Modulators 102
5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108
5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122
6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125
Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 125
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129
6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 130
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 134
7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139
William B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Theoretical Background 139
7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160
7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172
8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING
RESONATOR 175
Eric Udd
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175
8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180
8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183
8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187
8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber
Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189
8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192
9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201
Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201
9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206
9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208
10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON
INTERFEROMETERS 213
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Principle of Operation 214
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235
10.4 Applications 240
10.5 Summary 246
11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION
249
Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Signal Fading 250
11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253
11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255
11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257
12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263
Alan D. Kersey
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Distributed Sensing 264
12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273
12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277
13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293
Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical
Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 294
13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295
13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302
13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316
13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330
13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333
13.8 Conclusion 334
14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED
POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343
X. Steve Yao
14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed
Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 344
14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed
Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 355
14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization
Scrambled OFDR 368
14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369
15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375
Eric Udd
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376
15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385
15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures
388
15.5 Conclusions 393
16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397
Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel
16.1 Introduction 397
16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398
16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401
16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410
16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414
16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419
16.7 Summary 446
17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT
SENSING 449
Stephen Mihailov
17.1 Introduction 449
17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451
17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454
17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462
17.5 Summary 471
18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479
Daniele Inaudi
18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479
18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481
18.3 Bridges 482
18.4 Buildings 486
18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487
18.6 Tunnels 489
18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491
18.8 Conclusions 492
19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495
Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496
19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber
500
19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502
19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504
19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509
19.7 Conclusions 509
20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513
William B. Spillman Jr.
20.1 Introduction 513
20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518
20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520
20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530
20.6 Summary 542
21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545
Frank Bucholtz
21.1 Introduction 545
21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546
21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554
21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569
22 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573
John W. Berthold III
22.1 Introduction 573
22.2 Background 574
22.3 Temperature Measurement 575
22.4 Pressure Measurement 579
22.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 581
22.6 Flow Measurement 582
22.7 Position Measurement 584
22.8 Vibration Measurement 584
22.9 Chemical Analysis 585
22.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 588
22.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 589
22.12 Summary 590
References 590
INDEX 593