Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, Volume 3 (eBook, PDF)

Redaktion: Kutz, Myer

• Format: PDF

Produktbeschreibung

A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." -- Lord Kelvin Measurement is at the heart of any engineering and scientific discipline and job function. Whether engineers and scientists are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful data. The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering and scientific measurements--beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 3 covers measurements in physics, electrical engineering and chemistry: * Laser Measurement Techniques * Magnetic Force Images using Capacitive Coupling Effect * Scanning Tunneling Microscopy * Measurement of Light and Color * The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation * Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks * Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement * Cryogenic Measurements * Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements * Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems * Electric Power and Energy Measurement * Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences * Liquid Chromatography * Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins * Fluorescence Spectroscopy * X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy * Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy * Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy * Nanomaterials Properties * Chemical Sensing Vital for engineers, scientists, and technical managers in industry and government, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering will also prove ideal for academics and researchers at universities and laboratories.

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Produktdetails

• Verlag: For Dummies
• Seitenzahl: 832
• Erscheinungstermin: 17. Juni 2016
• Englisch
• ISBN-13: 9781119244738
• Artikelnr.: 45392999

Autorenporträt

Myer Kutz holds engineering degrees from RPI and MIT. He was Vice President and General Manager of Wiley's STM division and has consulted and authored for most of the major professional and technical publishing houses. He is the author of 7 books and the editor of more than 20 handbooks.

Inhaltsangabe

VOLUME 3 List of Contributors xxi PREFACE xxv Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945 Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles 54.1 Introduction, 1945 54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945 54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946 54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951 54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped Far
Infrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956 54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959 54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962 54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965 54.2 Laser Measurements: Laser
Based Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965 54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966 54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967 54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970 54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971 54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972 54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974 54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974 54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975 54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981 54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985 54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987 54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990 54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996 54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001 Byung I. Kim 55.1 Introduction, 2001 55.2 Experiment, 2004 55.2.1 Principle, 2004 55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004 55.2.3 Approach, 2005 55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006 55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007 55.3.2 Effects of Long
Range Tip-Sample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between Bimorph
Driven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012 55.4 Conclusion, 2020 References, 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025 Kwok
Wai Ng 56.1 Introduction, 2025 56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026 56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030 56.4 The Scanner, 2032 56.5 Operating Mode, 2035 56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036 56.7 Summary, 2041 References, 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043 John D. Bullough 57.1 Introduction, 2043 57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043 57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043 57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047 57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048 57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052 57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056 57.3.1 Photometry, 2056 57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063 57.4 Instrumentation, 2072 57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072 57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072 57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074 References, 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075 Clair J. Sullivan 58.1 Introduction, 2075 58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076 58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076 58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077 58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078 58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080 58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081 58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081 58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086 58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090 58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092 58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092 58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094 58.4.7 Semiconductors, 2096 58.5 Neutron Detection, 2100 58.5.1 Thermal Neutron Detection, 2102 58.5.2 Fast Neutron Detection, 2104 58.6 Concluding Remarks, 2106 References, 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109 Judah Levine 59.1 Introduction, 2109 59.2 A Generic Clock, 2109 59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators, 2110 59.3.1 Worst
Case Analysis, 2111 59.3.2 Statistical Analysis and the Allan Variance, 2113 59.3.3 Limitations of the Statistics, 2116 59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators, 2117 59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators, 2119 59.6 Noise Models, 2121 59.6.1 White Phase Noise, 2121 59.6.2 White Frequency Noise, 2122 59.6.3 Long
Period Effects: Frequency Aging, 2123 59.6.4 Flicker Noise, 2124 59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods, 2126 59.8 Measurement Strategies, 2129 59.9 The Kalman Estimator, 2133 59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information, 2135 59.10.1 Modeling the Delay, 2136 59.10.2 The Common
View Method, 2137 59.10.3 The "Melting
Pot" Version of Common View, 2138 59.10.4 Two
Way Methods, 2139 59.10.5 The Two
Color Method, 2139 59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies, 2141 59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS, 2141 59.11.2 The One
Way Method of Time Transfer: Modeling the Delay, 2144 59.11.3 The Common
View Method, 2145 59.11.4 Two
Way Time Protocols, 2147 59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock?, 2152 59.13 Error Detection, 2155 59.14 Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2156 59.15 The National Time Scale, 2157 59.16 Traceability, 2158 59.17 Summary, 2159 59.18 Bibliography, 2160 References, 2160 60 Laboratory
Based Gravity Measurement 2163 Charles D. Hoyle, Jr. 60.1 Introduction, 2163 60.2 Motivation for Laboratory
Scale Tests of Gravitational Physics, 2164 60.3 Parameterization, 2165 60.4 Current Status of Laboratory
Scale Gravitational Measurements, 2166 60.4.1 Tests of the ISL, 2166 60.4.2 WEP Tests, 2167 60.4.3 Measurements of G, 2167 60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments, 2167 60.5.1 General Principles and Sensitivity, 2168 60.5.2 Fundamental Limitations, 2168 60.5.3 ISL Experiments, 2171 60.5.4 Future ISL Tests, 2172 60.5.5 WEP Tests, 2176 60.5.6 Measurements of G, 2176 60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity, 2177 60.6.1 Microcantilevers, 2177 60.6.2 Very Short
Range ISL Tests, 2177 60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques, 2178 Acknowledgements, 2178 References, 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181 Ray Radebaugh 61.1 Introduction, 2181 61.2 Temperature, 2182 61.2.1 ITS
90 Temperature Scale and Primary Standards, 2182 61.2.2 Commercial Thermometers, 2183 61.2.3 Thermometer Use and Comparisons, 2193 61.2.4 Dynamic Temperature Measurements, 2199 61.3 Strain, 2201 61.3.1 Metal Alloy Strain Gages, 2202 61.3.2 Temperature Effects, 2203 61.3.3 Magnetic Field Effects, 2204 61.3.4 Measurement System, 2205 61.3.5 Dynamic Measurements, 2205 61.4 Pressure, 2205 61.4.1 Capacitance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.2 Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.3 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors, 2208 61.4.4 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, 2210 61.5 Flow, 2211 61.5.1 Positive Displacement Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2212 61.5.2 Angular Momentum Flowmeter (Mass Flow), 2212 61.5.3 Turbine Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2213 61.5.4 Differential Pressure Flowmeter, 2213 61.5.5 Thermal or Calorimetric (Mass Flow), 2216 61.5.6 Hot
Wire Anemometer (Mass Flow), 2217 61.6 Liquid Level, 2218 61.7 Magnetic Field, 2219 61.8 Conclusions, 2220 References, 2220 62 Temperature
Dependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225 James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears,  M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere 62.1 Introduction, 2225 62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry, 2227 62.3 Theory and Background, 2227 62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems, 2235 62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry, 2238 62.6 Representative Measurement Applications, 2239 62.6.1 Permanent Magnet Rotor Measurement, 2239 62.6.2 Turbine Engine Component Measurement, 2240 62.7 Two
Dimensional and Time
Dependent Temperature Measurement, 2241 62.8 Conclusion, 2243 References, 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245 Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci 63.1 Introduction, 2245 63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers, 2247 63.3 Instrument Transformers, 2248 63.3.1 Theoretical Fundamentals and Characteristics, 2248 63.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protective Purposes, 2252 63.3.3 Instrument Transformers under Nonsinusoidal Conditions, 2253 63.3.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformer, 2254 63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components, 2255 63.4.1 Shunts, 2255 63.4.2 Voltage Dividers, 2256 63.4.3 Isolation Amplifiers, 2257 63.5 Hall
Effect and Zero
Flux Transducers, 2258 63.5.1 The Hall Effect, 2258 63.5.2 Open
Loop Hall
Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.3 Closed
Loop Hall
Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.4 Zero
Flux Transducers, 2262 63.6 Air
Core Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils, 2262 63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Transducers, 2267 63.7.1 Optical Current Transducers, 2268 63.7.2 Optical Voltage Transducer, 2271 63.7.3 Applications of OCTs and OVTs, 2272 References and Further Reading, 2273 64 Electric Power and Energy Measurement 2275 Alessandro Ferrero and Marco Faifer 64.1 Introduction, 2275 64.2 Power and Energy in Electric Circuits, 2276 64.2.1 DC Circuits, 2276 64.2.2 AC Circuits, 2277 64.3 Measurement Methods, 2282 64.3.1 DC Conditions, 2282 64.3.2 AC Conditions, 2285 64.4 Wattmeters, 2288 64.4.1 Architecture, 2288 64.4.2 Signal Processing, 2289 64.5 Transducers, 2290 64.5.1 Current Transformers, 2291 64.5.2 Hall
Effect Sensors, 2296 64.5.3 Rogowski Coils, 2297 64.5.4 Voltage Transformers, 2299 64.5.5 Electronic Transformers, 2302 64.6 Power Quality Measurements, 2303 References, 2305 Part Viii CHEMISTRY 2307 65 An Overview of Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences 2309 Brad Swarbrick and Frank Westad 65.1 Introduction: The Past and Present of Chemometrics, 2309 65.2 Representative Data, 2311 65.2.1 A Suggested Workflow for Developing Chemometric Models, 2313 65.2.2 Accuracy and Precision, 2313 65.2.3 Summary of Representative Data Principles, 2316 65.3 Exploratory Data Analysis, 2317 65.3.1 Univariate and Multivariate Analysis, 2317 65.3.2 Cluster Analysis, 2318 65.3.3 Principal Component Analysis, 2323 65.4 Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.1 General Principles of Univariate and Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression, 2354 65.4.3 Principal Component Regression, 2355 65.4.4 Partial Least Squares Regression, 2356 65.5 Multivariate Classification, 2369 65.5.1 Linear Discriminant Analysis, 2370 65.5.2 Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy, 2372 65.5.3 Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis, 2381 65.5.4 Support Vector Machine Classification, 2383 65.6 Techniques for Validating Chemometric Models, 2385 65.6.1 Test Set Validation, 2386 65.6.2 Cross Validation, 2388 65.7 An Introduction to Mspc, 2389 65.7.1 Multivariate Projection, 2389 65.7.2 Hotelling's T2 Control Chart, 2390 65.7.3 Q
Residuals, 2391 65.7.4 Influence Plot, 2391 65.7.5 Continuous versus Batch Monitoring, 2392 65.7.6 Implementing MSPC in Practice, 2394 65.8 Terminology, 2397 65.9 Chapter Summary, 2401 References, 2404 66 Liquid Chromatography 2409 Zhao Li, Sandya Beeram, Cong Bi, Ellis Kaufmann, Ryan Matsuda, Maria Podariu, Elliott Rodriguez, Xiwei Zheng, and David S. Hage 66.1 Introduction, 2409 66.2 Support Materials in Lc, 2412 66.3 Role of the Mobile Phase in Lc, 2413 66.4 Adsorption Chromatography, 2414 66.5 Partition Chromatography, 2415 66.6 Ion
Exchange Chromatography, 2417 66.7 Size
Exclusion Chromatography, 2419 66.8 Affinity Chromatography, 2421 66.9 Detectors for Liquid Chromatography, 2423 66.10 Other Components of Lc Systems, 2426 Acknowledgements, 2427 References, 2427 67 Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine
Containing Proteins 2431 Xianquan Zhan and Dominic M. Desiderio 67.1 Introduction, 2431 67.1.1 Formation, Chemical Properties, and Related Nomenclature of Tyrosine Nitration, 2431 67.1.2 Biological Roles of Tyrosine Nitration in a Protein, 2432 67.1.3 Challenge and Strategies to Identify a Nitroprotein with Mass Spectrometry, 2432 67.1.4 Biological Significance Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2434 67.2 Mass Spectrometric Characteristics of Nitropeptides, 2434 67.2.1 MALDI
MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2434 67.2.2 ESI
MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2437 67.2.3 Optimum Collision Energy for Ion Fragmentation and Detection Sensitivity for a Nitropeptide, 2438 67.2.4 MS/MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide under Different Ion
Fragmentation Models, 2440 67.3 Ms Measurement of in vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.1 Importance of Measurement of In Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.2 Commonly Used In Vitro Nitroproteins and Their Preparation, 2443 67.3.3 Methods Used to Measure in Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2444 67.4 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins, 2446 67.4.1 Importance of Isolation and Enrichment of In Vivo Nitroprotein/Nitropeptide Prior to MS Analysis, 2446 67.4.2 Methods Used to Isolate and Enrich In Vivo Nitroproteins/Nitropeptides, 2446 67.5 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins in Different Pathological Conditions, 2449 67.6 Biological Function Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2456 67.6.1 Literature DatäBased Rationalization of Biological Functions, 2457 67.6.2 Protein Domain and Motif Analyses, 2459 67.6.3 Systems Pathway Analysis, 2459 67.6.4 Structural Biology Analysis, 2460 67.7 Pitfalls of Nitroprotein Measurement, 2462 67.8 Conclusions, 2463 Nomenclature, 2464 Acknowledgments, 2465 References, 2465 68 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 2475 Yevgen Povrozin and Beniamino Barbieri 68.1 Observables Measured in Fluorescence, 2476 68.2 The Perrin-Jab
on
ski Diagram, 2476 68.3 Instrumentation, 2479 68.3.1 Light Source, 2480 68.3.2 Monochromator, 2480 68.3.3 Light Detectors, 2481 68.3.4 Instrumentation for Steady
State Fluorescence: Analog and Photon Counting, 2483 68.3.5 The Measurement of Decay Times: Frequency
Domain and Time
Domain Techniques, 2484 68.4 Fluorophores, 2486 68.5 Measurements, 2487 68.5.1 Excitation Spectrum, 2487 68.5.2 Emission Spectrum, 2488 68.5.3 Decay Times of Fluorescence, 2490 68.5.4 Quantum Yield, 2492 68.5.5 Anisotropy and Polarization, 2492 68.6 Conclusions, 2498 References, 2498 Further Reading, 2498 69 X
Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 2499 Grant Bunker 69.1 Introduction, 2499 69.2 Basic Physics of X
Rays, 2499 69.2.1 Units, 2500 69.2.2 X
Ray Photons and Their Properties, 2500 69.2.3 X
Ray Scattering and Diffraction, 2501 69.2.4 X
Ray Absorption, 2502 69.2.5 Cross Sections and Absorption Edges, 2503 69.3 Experimental Requirements, 2505 69.4 Measurement Modes, 2507 69.5 Sources, 2507 69.5.1 Laboratory Sources, 2507 69.5.2 Synchrotron Radiation Sources, 2508 69.5.3 Bend Magnet Radiation, 2509 69.5.4 Insertion Devices: Wigglers and Undulators, 2509 69.6 Beamlines, 2512 69.6.1 Instrument Control and Scanning Modes, 2512 69.6.2 Double
Crystal Monochromators, 2513 69.6.3 Focusing Conditions, 2514 69.6.4 X
Ray Lenses and Mirrors, 2515 69.6.5 Harmonics, 2516 69.7 Detectors, 2518 69.7.1 Ionization Chambers and PIN Diodes, 2519 69.7.2 Solid
State Detectors, SDDs, and APDs, 2520 69.8 Sample Preparation and Detection Modes, 2521 69.8.1 Transmission Mode, 2521 69.8.2 Fluorescence Mode, 2521 69.8.3 HALO, 2522 69.8.4 Sample Geometry and Background Rejection, 2523 69.8.5 Oriented Samples, 2525 69.9 Absolute Measurements, 2526 References, 2526 70 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 2529 Kenneth R. Metz 70.1 Introduction, 2529 70.2 Historical Review, 2530 70.3 Basic Principles of Spin Magnetization, 2531 70.4 Exciting the NMR Signal, 2534 70.5 Detecting the NMR Signal, 2538 70.6 Computing the NMR Spectrum, 2540 70.7 NMR Instrumentation, 2542 70.8 The Basic Pulsed FTNMR Experiment, 2550 70.9 Characteristics of NMR Spectra, 2551 70.9.1 The Chemical Shift, 2552 70.9.2 Spin-Spin Coupling, 2557 70.10 NMR Relaxation Effects, 2563 70.10.1 Spin-Lattice Relaxation, 2563 70.10.2 Spin-Spin Relaxation, 2565 70.10.3 Quantitative Analysis by NMR, 2568 70.11 Dynamic Phenomena in NMR, 2568 70.12 Multidimensional NMR, 2573 70.13 Conclusion, 2580 References, 2580 71 Near
Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Role in Scientific and Engineering Applications 2583 Brad Swarbrick 71.1 Introduction to Near
Infrared Spectroscopy and Historical Perspectives, 2583 71.1.1 A Brief Overview of Near
Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Usage, 2583 71.1.2 A Short History of NIR, 2585 71.2 The Theory behind Nir Spectroscopy, 2588 71.2.1 IR Radiation, 2588 71.2.2 The Mechanism of Interaction of NIR Radiation with Matter, 2588 71.2.3 Absorbance Spectra, 2591 71.3 Instrumentation for Nir Spectroscopy, 2595 71.3.1 General Configuration of Instrumentation, 2595 71.3.2 Filter
Based Instruments, 2597 71.3.3 Holographic Grating
Based Instruments, 2598 71.3.4 Stationary Spectrographic Instruments, 2600 71.3.5 Fourier Transform Instruments, 2601 71.3.6 Acoustooptical Tunable Filter Instruments, 2603 71.3.7 Microelectromechanical Spectrometers, 2604 71.3.8 Linear Variable Filter Instruments, 2605 71.3.9 A Brief Overview of Detectors Used for NIR Spectroscopy, 2606 71.3.10 Summary, 2608 71.4 Modes of Spectral Collection and Sample Preparation in Nir Spectroscopy, 2609 71.4.1 Transmission Mode, 2609 71.4.2 Diffuse Reflectance, 2611 71.4.3 Sample Preparation, 2613 71.4.4 Fiber Optic Probes, 2617 71.4.5 Summary of Sampling Methods, 2619 71.5 Preprocessing of Nir Spectra for Chemometric Analysis, 2620 71.5.1 Preprocessing of NIR Spectra, 2621 71.5.2 Minimizing Additive Effects, 2621 71.5.3 Minimizing Multiplicative Effects, 2627 71.5.4 Preprocessing Summary, 2633 71.6 A Brief Overview of Applications of Nir Spectroscopy, 2633 71.6.1 Agricultural Applications, 2634 71.6.2 Pharmaceutical/Biopharmaceutical Applications, 2636 71.6.3 Applications in the Petrochemical and Refining Sectors, 2644 71.6.4 Applications in the Food and Beverage Industries, 2646 71.7 Summary and Future Perspectives, 2647 71.8 Terminology, 2648 References, 2652 72 Nanomaterials Properties 2657 Paul J. Simmonds 72.1 Introduction, 2657 72.2 The Rise of Nanomaterials, 2660 72.3 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from High Surface
Areäto
Volume Ratio, 2661 72.3.1 The Importance of Surfaces in Nanomaterials, 2661 72.3.2 Electrostatic and Van der Waals Forces, 2662 72.3.3 Color, 2663 72.3.4 Melting Point, 2663 72.3.5 Magnetism, 2664 72.3.6 Hydrophobicity and Surface Energetics, 2664 72.3.7 Nanofluidics, 2666 72.3.8 Nanoporosity, 2668 72.3.9 Nanomembranes, 2669 72.3.10 Nanocatalysis, 2670 72.3.11 Further Increasing the SAV Ratio, 2671 72.3.12 Nanopillars, 2672 72.3.13 Nanomaterial Functionalization, 2673 72.3.14 Other Applications for High SAV Ratio Nanomaterials, 2674 72.4 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from Quantum Confinement, 2674 72.4.1 Quantum Well Nanostructures, 2677 72.4.2 Quantum Wire Nanostructures, 2682 72.4.3 Quantum Dot Nanostructures, 2691 72.5 Conclusions, 2695 References, 2695 73 Chemical Sensing 2707 W. Rudolf Seitz 73.1 Introduction, 2707 73.2 Electrical Methods, 2709 73.2.1 Potentiometry, 2709 73.2.2 Voltammetry, 2713 73.2.3 Chemiresistors, 2715 73.2.4 Field Effect Transistors, 2716 73.3 Optical Methods, 2717 73.3.1 In situ Optical Measurements, 2717 73.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 2719 73.3.3 Indicator
Based Optical Sensors, 2721 73.4 Mass Sensors, 2722 73.5 Sensor Arrays (Electronic Nose), 2724 References, 2724 Index 2727