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Understand the metasurface revolution in electronic warfare Electronic warfare (EW) ensures safe usage of the electromagnetic spectrum by one's own forces while denying it to adversaries. Modern warfare is an extraordinarily fluid and dynamic activity, with numerous involved systems reconfigurable at the front or back ends. Metasurfaces, however, are artificially engineered surfaces that promise to take this dynamism to unprecedented levels by making platforms (aircraft, vessels, etc.) and the environment itself reconfigurable - a revolution that even major EW authorities have yet to…mehr
Understand the metasurface revolution in electronic warfare
Electronic warfare (EW) ensures safe usage of the electromagnetic spectrum by one's own forces while denying it to adversaries. Modern warfare is an extraordinarily fluid and dynamic activity, with numerous involved systems reconfigurable at the front or back ends. Metasurfaces, however, are artificially engineered surfaces that promise to take this dynamism to unprecedented levels by making platforms (aircraft, vessels, etc.) and the environment itself reconfigurable - a revolution that even major EW authorities have yet to fully comprehend.
Metasurface-driven Electronic Warfare outlines the parameters of this revolution and its transformative potential in the EW space. Beginning with a historical overview of EW dynamism, it then provides the electromagnetic basics to understand metasurfaces, their operation mechanisms, and capacity for shaping electromagnetic waves. A series of detailed studies of metasurface applications in EW makes this an indispensable guide to an increasingly dynamic battlefield.
Readers will also find:
Clear cost-benefit analyses of metasurface substitutions in modern EW scenarios
Detailed discussion of metasurface applications including stealth, electronic support, electronic attack, electronic protection, their use in drone swarms, smart environments, and more
Simulations of EW scenarios with accompanying MATLAB codes and exercises
Metasurface-driven Electronic Warfare is ideal for EW analysts, specialists, and operators, as well as signals intelligence and electrical engineering researchers and students. Because it covers the essentials in both areas, the book is also appropriate to support graduate courses on metasurfaces or EW.
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Autorenporträt
Rafael Gonçalves Licursi de Mello, PhD, received his PhD from the Institut Polytechnique de Paris in Electronics with a focus on reconfigurable metasurfaces for antennas. Experienced in both hardware and software parts of the EW problem, he has served as Signal Processing Engineer, Senior Signals Intelligence Researcher, Senior RF Antenna Research Engineer, and Vice-President of RF and Radar Systems at multiple deep tech companies. He began his career as a Pilot, Radar Operator, and Electronic Warfare Officer in the Maritime Patrol Aviation, where he carried out real EW missions and identified the needs for the scenario of the future.
Inhaltsangabe
About the Author xi Foreword xiii Preface xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Introduction to Metasurface-Driven Electronic Warfare 1 1.1 From Static Radios to a Metasurface-Driven EW 3 1.1.1 Early Days 4 1.1.2 The Modern Era 6 1.1.3 To the Future 8 1.2 Can We Actually Rely on Electromagnetic Waves? 9 1.3 The (Super) Natural Powers of Metasurfaces 10 1.3.1 Metamaterials: A Proof of Concept 12 1.3.2 The Need for a Two-Dimensional Version 13 1.4 How Do Metasurfaces Fit EW? 15 1.5 Reconfigurability at the Tactical Level 18 1.6 Book Presentation and Organization 19 1.7 Final Remarks of the Chapter 20 References 21 2 Electromagnetics: A Review on Pertinent Points 33 2.1 Introduction to Electromagnetics 34 2.1.1 Fundamental Concepts 34 2.1.2 Complex Representation 37 2.1.3 Traveling and Standing Waves 38 2.1.4 Reflection, Transmission, and the Concept of Impedance 41 2.1.5 Oblique Incidence and the Refraction of Waves 46 2.1.6 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence 48 2.1.7 Surface and Evanescent Waves 50 2.1.8 Takeaways 52 2.2 Unusual Properties for the Propagation of Waves 52 2.2.1 Negative Refraction 52 2.2.2 Negative Phase Velocity and Backward Waves 54 2.2.3 Amplification of Evanescent Waves 55 2.3 Demystifying the Break of Fundamental Laws 56 2.3.1 Mechanisms Behind Constitutive Parameters of Media 57 2.3.2 Typical Resonant Behaviors of Material 59 2.4 Final Remarks of the Chapter 64 References 64 3 Mechanisms Behind the Operation of Metasurfaces 67 3.1 Obtaining Arbitrary Medium Properties 68 3.2 Obtaining Arbitrary Boundary Conditions 72 3.2.1 The Mushroom-Like Metasurface 73 3.2.2 Surface Impedances 74 3.2.3 Transmission-Line Equivalent Schematic 76 3.2.4 Arbitrary Reflection Phase 78 3.2.5 Huygens' Principle 79 3.2.6 Arbitrary Transmission Phase 81 3.2.7 Arbitrary Reflection and Refraction Directions 84 3.3 Diversity of Approaches 87 3.4 Metasurfaces' Limitations 88 3.4.1 Metasurfaces' Frequency Dependence 88 3.4.2 Metasurfaces' Angle/Polarization Dependence 89 3.4.3 Low Profile and Conformal Shape in Metasurfaces 90 3.5 Final Remarks of the Chapter 91 References 92 4 Passive Stealth with Metasurfaces 99 4.1 The Radar Equation and the Concept of Radar Cross-Section 100 4.2 Traditional Stealth Technologies 103 4.3 Frequency Selective Surfaces 104 4.4 Scattering Metasurfaces 106 4.4.1 Checkerboard Metasurfaces 106 4.4.2 Phase-Gradient Metasurfaces 109 4.4.3 Polarization-Conversion Metasurfaces 112 4.4.4 Time-Varying Metasurfaces 116 4.4.5 Space-Time-Modulated Metasurfaces 118 4.4.6 Limitation of the Scattering Approach 120 4.5 Metasurface Absorbers 121 4.5.1 Conventional Metasurface Absorbers 121 4.5.2 Rasorbers 125 4.6 Challenges for Stealth with Passive Metasurfaces 127 4.6.1 Low Frequencies 127 4.6.2 Deployment Rate 131 4.7 Final Remarks of the Chapter 133 References 134 5 Active-Cancelation Stealth with Metasurfaces 143 5.1 The LPI Radar 145 5.2 A Brief Introduction to DRFMs 148 5.2.1 Generic DRFM Architecture 149 5.2.2 Complexity in the Analog Domain 150 5.2.3 Complexity in the Digital Domain 151 5.3 Working Principle of Active-Cancelation Stealth 153 5.3.1 Impact of the DOA Estimation 156 5.3.2 Impact of Complicated RCS Patterns 157 5.3.3 Impact of the Waveform 157 5.3.4 Impact of the Time Delay 159 5.4 Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 163 5.4.1 Modeling of Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 163 5.4.2 Miniaturization of Active Circuits 165 5.4.3 Cross-Polarized, Power-Amplified Reflections 166 5.4.4 Co-polarized, Power-Amplified Reflections 167 5.4.5 Roadmap to a Metasurface-Driven Active Stealth 169 5.5 Introduction to the EW Scenario Simulator in Matlab 171 5.5.1 Simulation Modeling 171 5.5.2 Simulation Algorithm 172 5.6 Simulation: Comparison Between Stealth Techniques 174 5.7 Exercises 177 5.7.1 Exploring the EW Scenario Simulator 178 5.7.2 Simulating a Realistic DRFM 178 5.7.3 Simulating a Realistic Active-Cancelation Stealth 179 5.8 Final Remarks of the Chapter 180 References 181 6 Metasurfaces for Electronic Support Applications 189 6.1 The One-Way Equation and ES Detection 192 6.2 Introduction to Frequency-Independent Antennas 193 6.2.1 Scaling Principle 194 6.2.2 Self-Complementariness Principle 201 6.3 Traditional Methods to Obtain Unidirectional Patterns 204 6.3.1 Lossy Cavities 204 6.3.2 PEC Antenna Reflectors 205 6.4 Obtaining Unidirectional Patterns with Metasurfaces 207 6.4.1 Single-Band AMC Reflectors 207 6.4.2 Frequency-Reconfigurable AMCs 209 6.4.3 Multiband-AMC Reflection Scheme 210 6.4.4 Extending the Number of Bands of Antenna Reflectors 216 6.4.5 Roadmap to Powerful Metasurface-Based ES Antennas 219 6.4.6 Composite Surfaces and Inhomogeneous AMCs 221 6.5 Simulation: Impact of Radiation Pattern in Collected Signals 225 6.6 Exercises 226 6.6.1 Simulating the Impact of Gain in Direction Finding 226 6.6.2 Simulating a DOA-Driven DRFM 228 6.6.3 Simulating the Impact of DOA Estimation in Active Stealth 228 6.6.4 Simulating the Impact of Gain in LPI Signal Classification 229 6.7 Chapter Final Remarks 229 References 230 7 Metasurface-Driven Electronic Attack 239 7.1 The Monopulse Radar 241 7.2 The Jamming Equation and the Burn-Through Range 245 7.3 Cross-Polarization Jamming with Metasurfaces 247 7.3.1 Working Principle with Conventional EA Systems 248 7.3.2 Working Principle with Metasurfaces 250 7.4 Simulation: Comparative Study on Cross-Polarization Jamming 253 7.4.1 Initial Results for Conventional EA Systems and Metasurfaces 254 7.4.2 Burn-Through Range Mitigation 256 7.4.3 Radar Reaction 258 7.4.4 Impact of Polarization-Conversion Ratio/Deployment Rate 258 7.5 Blinking Jamming with Metasurfaces 260 7.5.1 Working Principle with Conventional EA Systems 262 7.5.2 Working Principle with Metasurfaces 265 7.5.3 Implementation with Reconfigurable Metasurface Absorbers 266 7.5.4 Implementation with Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 268 7.6 Simulation: Comparative Study on Blinking Jamming 269 7.6.1 Initial Results and Radar Reaction 270 7.6.2 Burn-Through Range Mitigation 272 7.7 Envision of Generalized EA with Metasurfaces 274 7.8 Exercises 276 7.8.1 Modeling the Missile Guidance 277 7.8.2 Impact of DRFM on the Proposed EA Measures 277 7.8.3 Simulating the Generalized EA Measure 277 7.9 Chapter Final Remarks 278 References 279 8 Metasurfaces for Electronic Protection and Multifunctionality 285 8.1 Electronic Protection Against Directed-Energy Weapons 287 8.1.1 A Brief Introduction to Directed-Energy Weapons 287 8.1.2 Countering Directed-Energy Weapons with Metasurfaces 287 8.2 Electronic Protection Against Cross-Polarization Jammers 289 8.2.1 Countering Cross-Polarization Jammers with Metasurfaces 289 8.3 Exercise: Simulating EP Against Cross-Polarization Jammers 290 8.4 Metasurfaces for Radar Polarimetry 291 8.5 Metasurfaces as an Alternative to Phased Arrays 292 8.5.1 Working Principle of Phased-Array Antennas 293 8.5.2 Beamsteering with Phase-Gradient Metasurfaces 297 8.5.3 Beam-Steerable Antennas with Reflective Metasurfaces 298 8.5.4 Beam-Steerable Antennas with Transmissive Metasurfaces 299 8.5.5 Fabry-Perot Resonances 300 8.5.6 Beamsteering with Radiating Element Surrounded by Metasurfaces 305 8.6 Multifunctional Antennas with Metasurfaces 308 8.6.1 Challenges in Multiband/Multifunctional Antennas with Metasurfaces 309 8.6.2 Obtaining Stable Radiation Patterns in Multiple Bands 311 8.6.3 Example of Multiband/Multifunctional Antenna with Metasurfaces 312 8.6.4 Roadmap to New Metasurface-Based Multifunctional Antennas 317 8.7 Chapter Final Remarks 318 References 319 9 Emerging Use Cases of Metasurfaces in EW 327 9.1 Metasurface-Driven ES Capabilities in Drone Swarms 329 9.1.1 Direction Finding with Metasurfaces 329 9.1.2 Challenges to Bring the Technology to the Real World 332 9.1.3 Functionalities Unlocked by ES-Capable Drone Swarms 332 9.2 Metasurface-Driven Cognitive Jamming in Drone Swarms 333 9.2.1 Cognitive Jamming with Reinforcement Learning 334 9.2.2 Cognitive Jamming with Drone Swarms 336 9.2.3 The Role of Metasurfaces in Cognitive Jamming 337 9.3 Metasurface-Controlled Spectrum Access 338 9.3.1 Multipath Propagation Channel 339 9.3.2 Introduction to Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces 341 9.3.3 Improving the Radio Link Between Assets of Friendly Forces 343 9.3.4 Improving Signal Interception by Friendly Forces 346 9.3.5 Avoiding Signal Interception by Adversary Forces 348 9.3.6 Denying Spectrum Access to Adversary Forces 351 9.3.7 Further Ideas for the Application of RISs in an EW Context 353 9.4 Exercises 354 9.4.1 ES-Solving a Dense Scenario 354 9.4.2 ES-Solving a Multifunctional Radar 355 9.4.3 Simulating Cognitive Jamming with a Drone Swarm 356 9.5 Chapter Final Remarks 356 References 357 10 Summary and Final Remarks 369 Index 373
About the Author xi Foreword xiii Preface xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Introduction to Metasurface-Driven Electronic Warfare 1 1.1 From Static Radios to a Metasurface-Driven EW 3 1.1.1 Early Days 4 1.1.2 The Modern Era 6 1.1.3 To the Future 8 1.2 Can We Actually Rely on Electromagnetic Waves? 9 1.3 The (Super) Natural Powers of Metasurfaces 10 1.3.1 Metamaterials: A Proof of Concept 12 1.3.2 The Need for a Two-Dimensional Version 13 1.4 How Do Metasurfaces Fit EW? 15 1.5 Reconfigurability at the Tactical Level 18 1.6 Book Presentation and Organization 19 1.7 Final Remarks of the Chapter 20 References 21 2 Electromagnetics: A Review on Pertinent Points 33 2.1 Introduction to Electromagnetics 34 2.1.1 Fundamental Concepts 34 2.1.2 Complex Representation 37 2.1.3 Traveling and Standing Waves 38 2.1.4 Reflection, Transmission, and the Concept of Impedance 41 2.1.5 Oblique Incidence and the Refraction of Waves 46 2.1.6 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence 48 2.1.7 Surface and Evanescent Waves 50 2.1.8 Takeaways 52 2.2 Unusual Properties for the Propagation of Waves 52 2.2.1 Negative Refraction 52 2.2.2 Negative Phase Velocity and Backward Waves 54 2.2.3 Amplification of Evanescent Waves 55 2.3 Demystifying the Break of Fundamental Laws 56 2.3.1 Mechanisms Behind Constitutive Parameters of Media 57 2.3.2 Typical Resonant Behaviors of Material 59 2.4 Final Remarks of the Chapter 64 References 64 3 Mechanisms Behind the Operation of Metasurfaces 67 3.1 Obtaining Arbitrary Medium Properties 68 3.2 Obtaining Arbitrary Boundary Conditions 72 3.2.1 The Mushroom-Like Metasurface 73 3.2.2 Surface Impedances 74 3.2.3 Transmission-Line Equivalent Schematic 76 3.2.4 Arbitrary Reflection Phase 78 3.2.5 Huygens' Principle 79 3.2.6 Arbitrary Transmission Phase 81 3.2.7 Arbitrary Reflection and Refraction Directions 84 3.3 Diversity of Approaches 87 3.4 Metasurfaces' Limitations 88 3.4.1 Metasurfaces' Frequency Dependence 88 3.4.2 Metasurfaces' Angle/Polarization Dependence 89 3.4.3 Low Profile and Conformal Shape in Metasurfaces 90 3.5 Final Remarks of the Chapter 91 References 92 4 Passive Stealth with Metasurfaces 99 4.1 The Radar Equation and the Concept of Radar Cross-Section 100 4.2 Traditional Stealth Technologies 103 4.3 Frequency Selective Surfaces 104 4.4 Scattering Metasurfaces 106 4.4.1 Checkerboard Metasurfaces 106 4.4.2 Phase-Gradient Metasurfaces 109 4.4.3 Polarization-Conversion Metasurfaces 112 4.4.4 Time-Varying Metasurfaces 116 4.4.5 Space-Time-Modulated Metasurfaces 118 4.4.6 Limitation of the Scattering Approach 120 4.5 Metasurface Absorbers 121 4.5.1 Conventional Metasurface Absorbers 121 4.5.2 Rasorbers 125 4.6 Challenges for Stealth with Passive Metasurfaces 127 4.6.1 Low Frequencies 127 4.6.2 Deployment Rate 131 4.7 Final Remarks of the Chapter 133 References 134 5 Active-Cancelation Stealth with Metasurfaces 143 5.1 The LPI Radar 145 5.2 A Brief Introduction to DRFMs 148 5.2.1 Generic DRFM Architecture 149 5.2.2 Complexity in the Analog Domain 150 5.2.3 Complexity in the Digital Domain 151 5.3 Working Principle of Active-Cancelation Stealth 153 5.3.1 Impact of the DOA Estimation 156 5.3.2 Impact of Complicated RCS Patterns 157 5.3.3 Impact of the Waveform 157 5.3.4 Impact of the Time Delay 159 5.4 Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 163 5.4.1 Modeling of Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 163 5.4.2 Miniaturization of Active Circuits 165 5.4.3 Cross-Polarized, Power-Amplified Reflections 166 5.4.4 Co-polarized, Power-Amplified Reflections 167 5.4.5 Roadmap to a Metasurface-Driven Active Stealth 169 5.5 Introduction to the EW Scenario Simulator in Matlab 171 5.5.1 Simulation Modeling 171 5.5.2 Simulation Algorithm 172 5.6 Simulation: Comparison Between Stealth Techniques 174 5.7 Exercises 177 5.7.1 Exploring the EW Scenario Simulator 178 5.7.2 Simulating a Realistic DRFM 178 5.7.3 Simulating a Realistic Active-Cancelation Stealth 179 5.8 Final Remarks of the Chapter 180 References 181 6 Metasurfaces for Electronic Support Applications 189 6.1 The One-Way Equation and ES Detection 192 6.2 Introduction to Frequency-Independent Antennas 193 6.2.1 Scaling Principle 194 6.2.2 Self-Complementariness Principle 201 6.3 Traditional Methods to Obtain Unidirectional Patterns 204 6.3.1 Lossy Cavities 204 6.3.2 PEC Antenna Reflectors 205 6.4 Obtaining Unidirectional Patterns with Metasurfaces 207 6.4.1 Single-Band AMC Reflectors 207 6.4.2 Frequency-Reconfigurable AMCs 209 6.4.3 Multiband-AMC Reflection Scheme 210 6.4.4 Extending the Number of Bands of Antenna Reflectors 216 6.4.5 Roadmap to Powerful Metasurface-Based ES Antennas 219 6.4.6 Composite Surfaces and Inhomogeneous AMCs 221 6.5 Simulation: Impact of Radiation Pattern in Collected Signals 225 6.6 Exercises 226 6.6.1 Simulating the Impact of Gain in Direction Finding 226 6.6.2 Simulating a DOA-Driven DRFM 228 6.6.3 Simulating the Impact of DOA Estimation in Active Stealth 228 6.6.4 Simulating the Impact of Gain in LPI Signal Classification 229 6.7 Chapter Final Remarks 229 References 230 7 Metasurface-Driven Electronic Attack 239 7.1 The Monopulse Radar 241 7.2 The Jamming Equation and the Burn-Through Range 245 7.3 Cross-Polarization Jamming with Metasurfaces 247 7.3.1 Working Principle with Conventional EA Systems 248 7.3.2 Working Principle with Metasurfaces 250 7.4 Simulation: Comparative Study on Cross-Polarization Jamming 253 7.4.1 Initial Results for Conventional EA Systems and Metasurfaces 254 7.4.2 Burn-Through Range Mitigation 256 7.4.3 Radar Reaction 258 7.4.4 Impact of Polarization-Conversion Ratio/Deployment Rate 258 7.5 Blinking Jamming with Metasurfaces 260 7.5.1 Working Principle with Conventional EA Systems 262 7.5.2 Working Principle with Metasurfaces 265 7.5.3 Implementation with Reconfigurable Metasurface Absorbers 266 7.5.4 Implementation with Power-Amplifying Metasurfaces 268 7.6 Simulation: Comparative Study on Blinking Jamming 269 7.6.1 Initial Results and Radar Reaction 270 7.6.2 Burn-Through Range Mitigation 272 7.7 Envision of Generalized EA with Metasurfaces 274 7.8 Exercises 276 7.8.1 Modeling the Missile Guidance 277 7.8.2 Impact of DRFM on the Proposed EA Measures 277 7.8.3 Simulating the Generalized EA Measure 277 7.9 Chapter Final Remarks 278 References 279 8 Metasurfaces for Electronic Protection and Multifunctionality 285 8.1 Electronic Protection Against Directed-Energy Weapons 287 8.1.1 A Brief Introduction to Directed-Energy Weapons 287 8.1.2 Countering Directed-Energy Weapons with Metasurfaces 287 8.2 Electronic Protection Against Cross-Polarization Jammers 289 8.2.1 Countering Cross-Polarization Jammers with Metasurfaces 289 8.3 Exercise: Simulating EP Against Cross-Polarization Jammers 290 8.4 Metasurfaces for Radar Polarimetry 291 8.5 Metasurfaces as an Alternative to Phased Arrays 292 8.5.1 Working Principle of Phased-Array Antennas 293 8.5.2 Beamsteering with Phase-Gradient Metasurfaces 297 8.5.3 Beam-Steerable Antennas with Reflective Metasurfaces 298 8.5.4 Beam-Steerable Antennas with Transmissive Metasurfaces 299 8.5.5 Fabry-Perot Resonances 300 8.5.6 Beamsteering with Radiating Element Surrounded by Metasurfaces 305 8.6 Multifunctional Antennas with Metasurfaces 308 8.6.1 Challenges in Multiband/Multifunctional Antennas with Metasurfaces 309 8.6.2 Obtaining Stable Radiation Patterns in Multiple Bands 311 8.6.3 Example of Multiband/Multifunctional Antenna with Metasurfaces 312 8.6.4 Roadmap to New Metasurface-Based Multifunctional Antennas 317 8.7 Chapter Final Remarks 318 References 319 9 Emerging Use Cases of Metasurfaces in EW 327 9.1 Metasurface-Driven ES Capabilities in Drone Swarms 329 9.1.1 Direction Finding with Metasurfaces 329 9.1.2 Challenges to Bring the Technology to the Real World 332 9.1.3 Functionalities Unlocked by ES-Capable Drone Swarms 332 9.2 Metasurface-Driven Cognitive Jamming in Drone Swarms 333 9.2.1 Cognitive Jamming with Reinforcement Learning 334 9.2.2 Cognitive Jamming with Drone Swarms 336 9.2.3 The Role of Metasurfaces in Cognitive Jamming 337 9.3 Metasurface-Controlled Spectrum Access 338 9.3.1 Multipath Propagation Channel 339 9.3.2 Introduction to Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces 341 9.3.3 Improving the Radio Link Between Assets of Friendly Forces 343 9.3.4 Improving Signal Interception by Friendly Forces 346 9.3.5 Avoiding Signal Interception by Adversary Forces 348 9.3.6 Denying Spectrum Access to Adversary Forces 351 9.3.7 Further Ideas for the Application of RISs in an EW Context 353 9.4 Exercises 354 9.4.1 ES-Solving a Dense Scenario 354 9.4.2 ES-Solving a Multifunctional Radar 355 9.4.3 Simulating Cognitive Jamming with a Drone Swarm 356 9.5 Chapter Final Remarks 356 References 357 10 Summary and Final Remarks 369 Index 373
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