This new approach is based on a full multilevel statistical and psychometric model for students' responses to the test items, taking into account the design of the survey, the backgrounds of the students, and the classes, schools and communities in which the students were located. The authors detail a fully integrated single model that incorporates both the survey design and the psychometric model by extending the traditional form of the psychometric model to accommodate the design structure while allowing for student, teacher, and school covariates.
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