Enrique J Lavernia, Kaka Ma, Julie M Schoenung, James F Shackelford, Baolong Zheng
Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing
Science and Applications
Enrique J Lavernia, Kaka Ma, Julie M Schoenung, James F Shackelford, Baolong Zheng
Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing
Science and Applications
- Gebundenes Buch
- Merkliste
- Auf die Merkliste
- Bewerten Bewerten
- Teilen
- Produkt teilen
- Produkterinnerung
- Produkterinnerung
Overview of successful pathways for producing metal powders for additive manufacturing of high-performance metallic parts and components with tailored properties Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing introduces the readers to the science and technology of atomized metal powders beyond empirical knowledge and the fundamental relationships among the chemistry, microstructure, and morphology of atomized metallic powders and their behavior during additive manufacturing. The text sets a foundation of the underlying science that controls the formation and microstructure of atomized metallic…mehr
Andere Kunden interessierten sich auch für
- Metallic Nanoparticles for Health and the Environment216,99 €
- Ulick Richardson EvansAn Introduction to Metallic Corrosion37,99 €
- Oleg N. Senkov / Daniel B. Miracle / Sergey A. Firstov (Hgg.)Metallic Materials with High Structural Efficiency153,99 €
- Mukesh Kumar SinhaNon-Metallic Technical Textiles175,99 €
- E. BarskyCascade Separation of Powders129,99 €
- Oleg N. Senkov / Daniel B. Miracle / Sergey A. Firstov (Hgg.)Metallic Materials with High Structural Efficiency237,99 €
- David PritchardMass and Energy Balancing198,99 €
-
-
-
Overview of successful pathways for producing metal powders for additive manufacturing of high-performance metallic parts and components with tailored properties Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing introduces the readers to the science and technology of atomized metal powders beyond empirical knowledge and the fundamental relationships among the chemistry, microstructure, and morphology of atomized metallic powders and their behavior during additive manufacturing. The text sets a foundation of the underlying science that controls the formation and microstructure of atomized metallic droplets, including the relations among the properties of metallic powders, their performance during the manufacturing processes, and the resulting products. Other topics covered include the influence of powder on defect formation, residual stress, mechanical behavior, and physical properties. The concluding two chapters encompass considerations of broader societal implications and overarching themes, including the exploration of alternative feedstock materials, economic analysis, and sustainability assessment. These chapters offer valuable perspectives on the prospective trajectory of the field. Written by a team of experienced and highly qualified professors and academics, Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing includes information on: * Atomization techniques such as Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA), Electrode Induction Melting Gas Atomization (EIMGA), and Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP) * Atomization science and technology, covering control of atomization parameters, powder size distribution, effect of processing variables, and theoretical models of atomization * Heat transfer and solidification of droplets, covering nucleation, microstructure development, and important thermal and solidification conditions during atomization * Atomization of Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, and high entropy alloys, as well as composite powders for additive manufacturing, and guidelines for atomization equipment and powder handling * Fundamental processing principles in a variety of metal additive manufacturing processes * Powder characteristics and requirements for different additive manufacturing processes * Effect of powder chemistry and physical characteristics on additive manufacturing processes, and the microstructure and properties of the built parts * Evaluation of alternative feedstock sources for metal additive manufacturing, beyond gas atomized powder * Economic and sustainability perspectives on powder production and additive manufacturing Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing is an excellent combination of rigorous fundamentals and a practice-oriented and forward-looking resource on the subject for materials scientists and practicing engineers seeking to understand, optimize, and further develop the field of powder production and additive manufacturing.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley
- Seitenzahl: 608
- Erscheinungstermin: 28. Februar 2024
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 269mm x 213mm x 33mm
- Gewicht: 1882g
- ISBN-13: 9781119908111
- ISBN-10: 1119908116
- Artikelnr.: 69521963
- Verlag: Wiley
- Seitenzahl: 608
- Erscheinungstermin: 28. Februar 2024
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 269mm x 213mm x 33mm
- Gewicht: 1882g
- ISBN-13: 9781119908111
- ISBN-10: 1119908116
- Artikelnr.: 69521963
Enrique J. Lavernia, PhD, is Professor and holder of the M. Katherine Banks Chair, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station. Kaka Ma, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and School of Materials Science and Engineering at Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Julie M. Schoenung, PhD, is Professor and holder of the Wofford Cain Chair III, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station. James F. Shackelford, PhD, is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of California, Davis. Baolong Zheng, PhD, is Project Scientist in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of California, Irvine.
About the Authors xv Preface xix Acknowlegments xxiii Part I Atomization of
Metallic Powder 1 1 Overview of Atomization Techniques 3 1.1 History of
Metallic Powder and Atomization Techniques 3 1.1.1 Metal Powders 3 1.1.2
Atomizer Designs 4 1.2 Melt Atomization 8 1.3 Gas Atomization (GA) 9 1.4
Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA) 11 1.5 Electrode Induction Melting
Gas Atomization (EIMGA) 12 1.6 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP) 15
1.7 Spark Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (SPDS) 16 1.8 Plasma Induction
Gas Atomization (PIGA) 18 1.9 Plasma-Atomized Wire (PAW) 19 1.10 Water
Atomization (WA) 20 1.11 Summary 22 Nomenclature 23 References 23 2
Atomization 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Atomization Technology 26 2.2.1
Energy Consumption During Atomization 26 2.2.2 Molten Metal Atomization
Methods 27 2.2.3 Subsonic Gas Atomization 28 2.2.4 Supersonic Gas
Atomization 30 2.2.5 Ultrasonic Gas Atomization (USGA) 31 2.2.6 Centrifugal
Atomization 34 2.2.7 Mono-sized Droplet Atomization 36 2.3 Formation of
Droplets 38 2.3.1 Regimes of Liquid Breakup 38 2.3.2 Mechanisms of
Atomization 38 2.3.3 Atomization of Cylindrical Liquids 43 2.3.4
Atomization of Liquid Sheets 45 2.3.5 Droplet Formation Under Conventional
Gas Atomization Conditions 47 2.3.6 Droplet Formation During Centrifugal
Atomization 49 2.4 Control of Atomization Parameters 50 2.4.1
Classification of Processing Variables 50 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Metal
Flow Rate 50 2.4.3 Metal Flow Rate 55 2.4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Velocity 57
2.5 Powder Size Distribution 61 2.5.1 Powder Size 62 2.5.2 Size
Distribution 63 2.6 Effect of Processing Variables 64 2.6.1 Important
Atomization Variables 64 2.6.2 Atomization Pressure 64 2.6.3 Liquid Flow
Rate 66 2.6.4 Gas Velocity 67 2.6.5 Gas Flow Rate 69 2.6.6 Mechanical
Disturbances 70 2.6.7 Physical Properties of Atomization Gas 71 2.6.8
Liquid Viscosity 71 2.6.9 Liquid Surface Tension 73 2.6.10 Fluid
Temperature 74 2.6.11 Solidification Event 76 2.6.12 Apex Angle 78 2.6.13
Variables in Centrifugal Atomization 78 2.7 Theoretical Models of
Atomization 80 2.7.1 Breakup of Liquid Rods or Fragments 80 2.7.2 Formation
of Droplets by Sheet Breakup 82 2.8 Empirical Models 86 2.8.1 Nukiyama and
Tanasawa Analysis 87 2.8.2 Wigg Analysis 87 2.8.3 Kim and Marshall Analysis
90 2.8.4 Schmitt Analysis 91 2.8.5 Weiss and Worsham Analysis 91 2.8.6
Lubanska Analysis 92 2.9 Summary 94 Nomenclature 94 References 96 3 Heat
Transfer and Solidification of Droplets 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2
Important Thermal and Solidification Conditions 103 3.2.1 Thermal
Conditions 103 3.2.2 Solidification Considerations 105 3.3 Heat Transfer
107 3.3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 107 3.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient 109
3.3.3 Gas Velocity 111 3.3.4 Droplet Velocity 112 3.4 Nucleation 116 3.4.1
Homogeneous Nucleation 117 3.4.1.1 Free Energy of Nucleation 117 3.4.1.2
Nucleation Rate 120 3.4.1.3 Homogeneous Undercooling 121 3.4.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation 125 3.4.2.1 Heterogeneous Nucleants 126 3.4.2.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation Undercooling 128 3.4.2.3 Distribution of Nucleants
130 3.5 Solidification of Droplets 134 3.5.1 Temperature Distribution in
Droplets 135 3.5.2 Newtonian Solidification 136 3.5.3 Cooling Rate 137
3.5.4 Solidification Time 140 3.5.5 Interfacial Velocity 141 3.5.5.1
Equilibrium Solidification 141 3.5.5.2 Dynamic Solidification 143 3.5.5.3
Stepwise Growth 145 3.5.5.4 Experimentally Determined Interfacial
Velocities 147 3.6 Microstructural Development 151 3.6.1 Solidification
Morphology 151 3.6.2 Microstrutural Refinement 155 3.6.2.1 Dendrite Arm
Spacing 155 3.6.2.2 Grain Size 159 3.6.3 Phase Selection 162 3.6.4 Solute
Redistribution 166 3.7 Summary 169 Nomenclature 170 References 172 4
Composite Powders for Additive Manufacturing 179 4.1 Introduction 179 4.2
Fabrication Methods 180 4.2.1 Atomization and Co-injection 180 4.2.2
Atomization of Premixed MMCs 186 4.2.3 Reactive Atomization 186 4.2.3.1
Gas-Liquid Interactions 186 4.2.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Interactions 192 4.2.3.3
Liquid-Solid Interactions 192 4.3 Incorporation of Reinforcements During
Co-injection 193 4.3.1 Incorporation Behavior of Reinforcements 193 4.3.2
Penetration of Semiliquid Droplets 197 4.3.2.1 Energy Balance 198 4.3.2.2
Force Balance 200 4.3.2.3 Combined Energy and Force Balance 201 4.3.2.4
Penetration Depth 204 4.3.2.5 Particle Type, Morphology, and Solid Fraction
204 4.3.3 Penetration of Solid Droplets 206 4.4 Particle Behavior During
Solidification 207 4.4.1 Engulfment of Reinforcements by Solid-Liquid
Interface 207 4.4.1.1 Mass Balance 209 4.4.1.2 Force Balance 209 4.4.1.3
Thermal Field 210 4.4.1.4 Thermal Field and Force Balance 211 4.4.1.5
Engulfment During Droplet Solidification 211 4.4.2 Mechanical Entrapment of
Reinforcements by Solidification Fronts 213 4.4.3 Reinforcement-Induced
Nucleation 214 4.4.3.1 Free Energy Effects 214 4.4.3.2 Thermal Effects 215
4.5 Other Methods for Fabricating MMC Powders 219 4.5.1 Mechanical Milling
and Cryomilling 220 4.5.2 Surface Coating 224 4.5.3 Reaction Synthesis 226
4.6 Summary 227 Nomenclature 228 References 230 5 Diagnostic and
Characterization Techniques 235 5.1 Introduction 235 5.2 Flow Visualization
Techniques 235 5.3 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) 239 5.4 Particle
Counting, Sizing, and Velocity Probe (PCSV-P) 243 5.5 High-Speed
Cinematography/Video 246 5.6 High-Speed Off-Axis Holographic Cinematography
249 5.7 Infrared Thermal Imaging 252 5.8 Phase Doppler Particle Analysis
(PDPA) 253 5.9 Surface Ionization For Monitoring Particles (SIMP) 255 5.10
Intelligent Sensors 255 5.11 Summary 259 References 260 6 Atomization
Improvements for Additive Manufacturing 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Gas
and Metal Flow Rates 263 6.3 Gas Velocity 264 6.4 Physical Characteristics
of the Gas and Melt 265 6.5 Powder Size Distribution and Other Variables
266 6.6 Powder Morphology 268 6.7 Powder Satellites 272 6.8 Powder Porosity
275 6.9 Summary 278 Nomenclature 278 References 279 7 Atomization of Alloys
283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Aluminum-Based Alloys and Powders 283 7.2.1
Al-Based Alloy Powders 284 7.2.2 Al-Si Alloys 285 7.2.3 Al-Cu Alloys 288
7.2.4 Al-Transition Metal Alloys 289 7.2.5 Al-Li Alloys 289 7.2.6
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys 292 7.3 Iron-Based Alloys and Powders 296 7.3.1 Fe-Based
Alloy Powders 297 7.3.2 Stainless Steels 300 7.3.3 Tool Steels 301 7.3.4
Other Iron-Based Materials 303 7.4 Nickel-Based Alloys and Powders 303
7.4.1 Ni-Based Alloy Powders 304 7.4.2 Inconel Alloys 306 7.4.3 René Alloys
308 7.4.4 Other Superalloys 310 7.5 Titanium-Based Alloy and Powders 311
7.5.1 Ti-Based Alloys 311 7.5.2 Ti-Based Alloy Powders 313 7.6 Cobalt-Based
Alloys and Powder 319 7.6.1 Co-Based Alloys 319 7.6.2 Co-Based Alloy
Powders 321 7.7 High-Entropy Alloys and Powders 323 7.7.1 High-Entropy
Alloys 323 7.7.2 High-Entropy Alloy Powders 325 7.8 Summary 329
Nomenclature 329 References 331 Part II Powders in Additive Manufacturing
341 8 Overview of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies 343 8.1 History
of Metal Additive Manufacturing Techniques 343 8.2 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
345 8.2.1 PBF Processing Principles 345 8.2.2 Feedstock Powder for PBF 347
8.2.3 Post-processing After PBF 348 8.3 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
348 8.3.1 DED Processing Principles 348 8.3.2 Feedstock Powder for DED 349
8.3.3 Post-processing After DED 351 8.4 Metal Binder Jetting 351 8.4.1 BJT
Processing Principles 351 8.4.2 Feedstock Powder for BJT 352 8.4.3
Post-processing After BJT 352 8.5 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 353 8.6 Summary
354 Acronym/Nomenclature 354 References 355 9 Powder-Laser-Melt Pool
Interactions 361 9.1 Introduction 361 9.2 Laser and Laser-Material
Interactions 362 9.2.1 Laser-Matter Interactions 362 9.2.2 Laser-Material
Processing 363 9.3 Laser-Material Interactions During DED Processing 364
9.3.1 Inflight Particle Heating 364 9.3.2 Thermal Behavior of Melt Pool 366
9.3.3 Interactions Between Particles and Melt Pool 367 9.4 Laser-Material
Interactions During PBF Processing 372 9.4.1 Powder Layer Characteristics
and Spreading 373 9.4.2 Laser Beam-Powder Interactions 375 9.4.3 Spatter
and Denudation Formation 378 9.4.4 Powder Degradation 381 9.5 Summary 383
Nomenclature 383 References 384 10 Influence of Powder Chemistry on
Additive Manufacturing 387 10.1 Introduction 387 10.2 Alloy Compositions
387 10.3 Impurities and Segregation 391 10.4 High Entropy Alloys
(Multi-Principal Element Alloys) 392 10.5 Metal Matrix Composites 394 10.6
In-Situ Alloying (In-Process Alloying) 396 10.7 Summary 397 Nomenclature
397 References 397 11 Physical Powder Characteristics and Additive
Manufacturing 403 11.1 Introduction 403 11.2 Characterization of Physical
Powder Properties 403 11.2.1 Powder Sampling 403 11.2.2 Particle Size and
Particle Size Distribution 405 11.2.3 Particle Morphology 407 11.2.4 Powder
Flow Characteristics 409 11.3 Powder Production Methods 412 11.3.1 Gas
Atomization 413 11.3.2 Water Atomization 413 11.3.3 Mechanical Milling 414
11.4 Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery 414 11.5 Influence of Powder
Production Methods and Parameters On Powder Properties and Additive
Manufacturing 416 11.6 Influence of Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery
on Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing 420 11.7
Postproduction Methods for Treating Powders 423 11.8 Summary 425
Nomenclature 426 References 427 12 Microstructure Evolution and Powder
Effects 433 12.1 Introduction 433 12.2 Grain Structure and Phase
Composition 433 12.2.1 Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET) 433 12.2.2
Phase Composition 439 12.3 Solidification Kinetics 441 12.4 Solid-State AM
445 12.5 Summary 448 Nomenclature 448 References 450 13 Defect Formation
and Powder Effects 455 13.1 Introduction 455 13.2 Porosity 455 13.3
Cracking and Delamination 460 13.4 Interfacial Structure and Grain Size 462
13.5 Segregation 470 13.6 Surface Roughness 472 13.7 Summary 475
Nomenclature 475 References 476 14 Residual Stress and Powder Effects 479
14.1 Introduction 479 14.2 Measuring Residual Stress 479 14.3 Powder
Characteristics 481 14.4 Pre-processing Heat Treatment 482 14.5 Process
Parameters 483 14.6 Post-processing Treatments 487 14.7 Summary 490
Nomenclature 490 References 491 15 Physical and Chemical Behavior and
Powder Effects 493 15.1 Introduction 493 15.2 Density 493 15.3 Surface
Appearance 494 15.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 496 15.5 Hardness 497
15.6 Fracture and Fatigue 498 15.7 Corrosion and Wear 502 15.8 Oxidation
509 15.9 Summary 510 Nomenclature 511 References 511 16 Economic and
Sustainability Assessments of Powder Production and Additive Manufacturing
513 16.1 Introduction 513 16.2 Resource Utilization 513 16.2.1 Materials
Utilization 514 16.2.2 Energy Utilization 516 16.2.3 Other Resources 518
16.3 Economic Assessment 519 16.3.1 Cost Breakdown and Models 520 16.3.2
Supply Chain Effects 524 16.4 Sustainability Assessments 527 16.4.1 Hazard
Traits of Metals and Occupational Exposure Potential 528 16.4.2 Life Cycle
Assessment of Environmental Impact 542 16.5 Summary 546 Nomenclature 547
References 549 17 Future Directions and Challenges 555 17.1 Introduction
555 17.2 Future Directions in the Atomization of Powders 556 17.2.1
Technology Improvements 556 17.2.2 Custom Alloys and Composites 557 17.2.3
Additive Manufacturing 557 17.3 Future Directions and Challenges in the
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys 558 17.3.1 Machine Learning and
Artificial Intelligence 558 17.3.2 Novel Structures 560 17.3.3 Hybrid
Manufacturing 560 17.3.4 Diagnostic Methods 561 17.3.5 Future Challenges
561 17.4 Summary 561 References 562 Index 565
Metallic Powder 1 1 Overview of Atomization Techniques 3 1.1 History of
Metallic Powder and Atomization Techniques 3 1.1.1 Metal Powders 3 1.1.2
Atomizer Designs 4 1.2 Melt Atomization 8 1.3 Gas Atomization (GA) 9 1.4
Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA) 11 1.5 Electrode Induction Melting
Gas Atomization (EIMGA) 12 1.6 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP) 15
1.7 Spark Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (SPDS) 16 1.8 Plasma Induction
Gas Atomization (PIGA) 18 1.9 Plasma-Atomized Wire (PAW) 19 1.10 Water
Atomization (WA) 20 1.11 Summary 22 Nomenclature 23 References 23 2
Atomization 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Atomization Technology 26 2.2.1
Energy Consumption During Atomization 26 2.2.2 Molten Metal Atomization
Methods 27 2.2.3 Subsonic Gas Atomization 28 2.2.4 Supersonic Gas
Atomization 30 2.2.5 Ultrasonic Gas Atomization (USGA) 31 2.2.6 Centrifugal
Atomization 34 2.2.7 Mono-sized Droplet Atomization 36 2.3 Formation of
Droplets 38 2.3.1 Regimes of Liquid Breakup 38 2.3.2 Mechanisms of
Atomization 38 2.3.3 Atomization of Cylindrical Liquids 43 2.3.4
Atomization of Liquid Sheets 45 2.3.5 Droplet Formation Under Conventional
Gas Atomization Conditions 47 2.3.6 Droplet Formation During Centrifugal
Atomization 49 2.4 Control of Atomization Parameters 50 2.4.1
Classification of Processing Variables 50 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Metal
Flow Rate 50 2.4.3 Metal Flow Rate 55 2.4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Velocity 57
2.5 Powder Size Distribution 61 2.5.1 Powder Size 62 2.5.2 Size
Distribution 63 2.6 Effect of Processing Variables 64 2.6.1 Important
Atomization Variables 64 2.6.2 Atomization Pressure 64 2.6.3 Liquid Flow
Rate 66 2.6.4 Gas Velocity 67 2.6.5 Gas Flow Rate 69 2.6.6 Mechanical
Disturbances 70 2.6.7 Physical Properties of Atomization Gas 71 2.6.8
Liquid Viscosity 71 2.6.9 Liquid Surface Tension 73 2.6.10 Fluid
Temperature 74 2.6.11 Solidification Event 76 2.6.12 Apex Angle 78 2.6.13
Variables in Centrifugal Atomization 78 2.7 Theoretical Models of
Atomization 80 2.7.1 Breakup of Liquid Rods or Fragments 80 2.7.2 Formation
of Droplets by Sheet Breakup 82 2.8 Empirical Models 86 2.8.1 Nukiyama and
Tanasawa Analysis 87 2.8.2 Wigg Analysis 87 2.8.3 Kim and Marshall Analysis
90 2.8.4 Schmitt Analysis 91 2.8.5 Weiss and Worsham Analysis 91 2.8.6
Lubanska Analysis 92 2.9 Summary 94 Nomenclature 94 References 96 3 Heat
Transfer and Solidification of Droplets 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2
Important Thermal and Solidification Conditions 103 3.2.1 Thermal
Conditions 103 3.2.2 Solidification Considerations 105 3.3 Heat Transfer
107 3.3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 107 3.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient 109
3.3.3 Gas Velocity 111 3.3.4 Droplet Velocity 112 3.4 Nucleation 116 3.4.1
Homogeneous Nucleation 117 3.4.1.1 Free Energy of Nucleation 117 3.4.1.2
Nucleation Rate 120 3.4.1.3 Homogeneous Undercooling 121 3.4.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation 125 3.4.2.1 Heterogeneous Nucleants 126 3.4.2.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation Undercooling 128 3.4.2.3 Distribution of Nucleants
130 3.5 Solidification of Droplets 134 3.5.1 Temperature Distribution in
Droplets 135 3.5.2 Newtonian Solidification 136 3.5.3 Cooling Rate 137
3.5.4 Solidification Time 140 3.5.5 Interfacial Velocity 141 3.5.5.1
Equilibrium Solidification 141 3.5.5.2 Dynamic Solidification 143 3.5.5.3
Stepwise Growth 145 3.5.5.4 Experimentally Determined Interfacial
Velocities 147 3.6 Microstructural Development 151 3.6.1 Solidification
Morphology 151 3.6.2 Microstrutural Refinement 155 3.6.2.1 Dendrite Arm
Spacing 155 3.6.2.2 Grain Size 159 3.6.3 Phase Selection 162 3.6.4 Solute
Redistribution 166 3.7 Summary 169 Nomenclature 170 References 172 4
Composite Powders for Additive Manufacturing 179 4.1 Introduction 179 4.2
Fabrication Methods 180 4.2.1 Atomization and Co-injection 180 4.2.2
Atomization of Premixed MMCs 186 4.2.3 Reactive Atomization 186 4.2.3.1
Gas-Liquid Interactions 186 4.2.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Interactions 192 4.2.3.3
Liquid-Solid Interactions 192 4.3 Incorporation of Reinforcements During
Co-injection 193 4.3.1 Incorporation Behavior of Reinforcements 193 4.3.2
Penetration of Semiliquid Droplets 197 4.3.2.1 Energy Balance 198 4.3.2.2
Force Balance 200 4.3.2.3 Combined Energy and Force Balance 201 4.3.2.4
Penetration Depth 204 4.3.2.5 Particle Type, Morphology, and Solid Fraction
204 4.3.3 Penetration of Solid Droplets 206 4.4 Particle Behavior During
Solidification 207 4.4.1 Engulfment of Reinforcements by Solid-Liquid
Interface 207 4.4.1.1 Mass Balance 209 4.4.1.2 Force Balance 209 4.4.1.3
Thermal Field 210 4.4.1.4 Thermal Field and Force Balance 211 4.4.1.5
Engulfment During Droplet Solidification 211 4.4.2 Mechanical Entrapment of
Reinforcements by Solidification Fronts 213 4.4.3 Reinforcement-Induced
Nucleation 214 4.4.3.1 Free Energy Effects 214 4.4.3.2 Thermal Effects 215
4.5 Other Methods for Fabricating MMC Powders 219 4.5.1 Mechanical Milling
and Cryomilling 220 4.5.2 Surface Coating 224 4.5.3 Reaction Synthesis 226
4.6 Summary 227 Nomenclature 228 References 230 5 Diagnostic and
Characterization Techniques 235 5.1 Introduction 235 5.2 Flow Visualization
Techniques 235 5.3 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) 239 5.4 Particle
Counting, Sizing, and Velocity Probe (PCSV-P) 243 5.5 High-Speed
Cinematography/Video 246 5.6 High-Speed Off-Axis Holographic Cinematography
249 5.7 Infrared Thermal Imaging 252 5.8 Phase Doppler Particle Analysis
(PDPA) 253 5.9 Surface Ionization For Monitoring Particles (SIMP) 255 5.10
Intelligent Sensors 255 5.11 Summary 259 References 260 6 Atomization
Improvements for Additive Manufacturing 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Gas
and Metal Flow Rates 263 6.3 Gas Velocity 264 6.4 Physical Characteristics
of the Gas and Melt 265 6.5 Powder Size Distribution and Other Variables
266 6.6 Powder Morphology 268 6.7 Powder Satellites 272 6.8 Powder Porosity
275 6.9 Summary 278 Nomenclature 278 References 279 7 Atomization of Alloys
283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Aluminum-Based Alloys and Powders 283 7.2.1
Al-Based Alloy Powders 284 7.2.2 Al-Si Alloys 285 7.2.3 Al-Cu Alloys 288
7.2.4 Al-Transition Metal Alloys 289 7.2.5 Al-Li Alloys 289 7.2.6
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys 292 7.3 Iron-Based Alloys and Powders 296 7.3.1 Fe-Based
Alloy Powders 297 7.3.2 Stainless Steels 300 7.3.3 Tool Steels 301 7.3.4
Other Iron-Based Materials 303 7.4 Nickel-Based Alloys and Powders 303
7.4.1 Ni-Based Alloy Powders 304 7.4.2 Inconel Alloys 306 7.4.3 René Alloys
308 7.4.4 Other Superalloys 310 7.5 Titanium-Based Alloy and Powders 311
7.5.1 Ti-Based Alloys 311 7.5.2 Ti-Based Alloy Powders 313 7.6 Cobalt-Based
Alloys and Powder 319 7.6.1 Co-Based Alloys 319 7.6.2 Co-Based Alloy
Powders 321 7.7 High-Entropy Alloys and Powders 323 7.7.1 High-Entropy
Alloys 323 7.7.2 High-Entropy Alloy Powders 325 7.8 Summary 329
Nomenclature 329 References 331 Part II Powders in Additive Manufacturing
341 8 Overview of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies 343 8.1 History
of Metal Additive Manufacturing Techniques 343 8.2 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
345 8.2.1 PBF Processing Principles 345 8.2.2 Feedstock Powder for PBF 347
8.2.3 Post-processing After PBF 348 8.3 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
348 8.3.1 DED Processing Principles 348 8.3.2 Feedstock Powder for DED 349
8.3.3 Post-processing After DED 351 8.4 Metal Binder Jetting 351 8.4.1 BJT
Processing Principles 351 8.4.2 Feedstock Powder for BJT 352 8.4.3
Post-processing After BJT 352 8.5 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 353 8.6 Summary
354 Acronym/Nomenclature 354 References 355 9 Powder-Laser-Melt Pool
Interactions 361 9.1 Introduction 361 9.2 Laser and Laser-Material
Interactions 362 9.2.1 Laser-Matter Interactions 362 9.2.2 Laser-Material
Processing 363 9.3 Laser-Material Interactions During DED Processing 364
9.3.1 Inflight Particle Heating 364 9.3.2 Thermal Behavior of Melt Pool 366
9.3.3 Interactions Between Particles and Melt Pool 367 9.4 Laser-Material
Interactions During PBF Processing 372 9.4.1 Powder Layer Characteristics
and Spreading 373 9.4.2 Laser Beam-Powder Interactions 375 9.4.3 Spatter
and Denudation Formation 378 9.4.4 Powder Degradation 381 9.5 Summary 383
Nomenclature 383 References 384 10 Influence of Powder Chemistry on
Additive Manufacturing 387 10.1 Introduction 387 10.2 Alloy Compositions
387 10.3 Impurities and Segregation 391 10.4 High Entropy Alloys
(Multi-Principal Element Alloys) 392 10.5 Metal Matrix Composites 394 10.6
In-Situ Alloying (In-Process Alloying) 396 10.7 Summary 397 Nomenclature
397 References 397 11 Physical Powder Characteristics and Additive
Manufacturing 403 11.1 Introduction 403 11.2 Characterization of Physical
Powder Properties 403 11.2.1 Powder Sampling 403 11.2.2 Particle Size and
Particle Size Distribution 405 11.2.3 Particle Morphology 407 11.2.4 Powder
Flow Characteristics 409 11.3 Powder Production Methods 412 11.3.1 Gas
Atomization 413 11.3.2 Water Atomization 413 11.3.3 Mechanical Milling 414
11.4 Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery 414 11.5 Influence of Powder
Production Methods and Parameters On Powder Properties and Additive
Manufacturing 416 11.6 Influence of Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery
on Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing 420 11.7
Postproduction Methods for Treating Powders 423 11.8 Summary 425
Nomenclature 426 References 427 12 Microstructure Evolution and Powder
Effects 433 12.1 Introduction 433 12.2 Grain Structure and Phase
Composition 433 12.2.1 Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET) 433 12.2.2
Phase Composition 439 12.3 Solidification Kinetics 441 12.4 Solid-State AM
445 12.5 Summary 448 Nomenclature 448 References 450 13 Defect Formation
and Powder Effects 455 13.1 Introduction 455 13.2 Porosity 455 13.3
Cracking and Delamination 460 13.4 Interfacial Structure and Grain Size 462
13.5 Segregation 470 13.6 Surface Roughness 472 13.7 Summary 475
Nomenclature 475 References 476 14 Residual Stress and Powder Effects 479
14.1 Introduction 479 14.2 Measuring Residual Stress 479 14.3 Powder
Characteristics 481 14.4 Pre-processing Heat Treatment 482 14.5 Process
Parameters 483 14.6 Post-processing Treatments 487 14.7 Summary 490
Nomenclature 490 References 491 15 Physical and Chemical Behavior and
Powder Effects 493 15.1 Introduction 493 15.2 Density 493 15.3 Surface
Appearance 494 15.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 496 15.5 Hardness 497
15.6 Fracture and Fatigue 498 15.7 Corrosion and Wear 502 15.8 Oxidation
509 15.9 Summary 510 Nomenclature 511 References 511 16 Economic and
Sustainability Assessments of Powder Production and Additive Manufacturing
513 16.1 Introduction 513 16.2 Resource Utilization 513 16.2.1 Materials
Utilization 514 16.2.2 Energy Utilization 516 16.2.3 Other Resources 518
16.3 Economic Assessment 519 16.3.1 Cost Breakdown and Models 520 16.3.2
Supply Chain Effects 524 16.4 Sustainability Assessments 527 16.4.1 Hazard
Traits of Metals and Occupational Exposure Potential 528 16.4.2 Life Cycle
Assessment of Environmental Impact 542 16.5 Summary 546 Nomenclature 547
References 549 17 Future Directions and Challenges 555 17.1 Introduction
555 17.2 Future Directions in the Atomization of Powders 556 17.2.1
Technology Improvements 556 17.2.2 Custom Alloys and Composites 557 17.2.3
Additive Manufacturing 557 17.3 Future Directions and Challenges in the
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys 558 17.3.1 Machine Learning and
Artificial Intelligence 558 17.3.2 Novel Structures 560 17.3.3 Hybrid
Manufacturing 560 17.3.4 Diagnostic Methods 561 17.3.5 Future Challenges
561 17.4 Summary 561 References 562 Index 565
About the Authors xv Preface xix Acknowlegments xxiii Part I Atomization of
Metallic Powder 1 1 Overview of Atomization Techniques 3 1.1 History of
Metallic Powder and Atomization Techniques 3 1.1.1 Metal Powders 3 1.1.2
Atomizer Designs 4 1.2 Melt Atomization 8 1.3 Gas Atomization (GA) 9 1.4
Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA) 11 1.5 Electrode Induction Melting
Gas Atomization (EIMGA) 12 1.6 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP) 15
1.7 Spark Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (SPDS) 16 1.8 Plasma Induction
Gas Atomization (PIGA) 18 1.9 Plasma-Atomized Wire (PAW) 19 1.10 Water
Atomization (WA) 20 1.11 Summary 22 Nomenclature 23 References 23 2
Atomization 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Atomization Technology 26 2.2.1
Energy Consumption During Atomization 26 2.2.2 Molten Metal Atomization
Methods 27 2.2.3 Subsonic Gas Atomization 28 2.2.4 Supersonic Gas
Atomization 30 2.2.5 Ultrasonic Gas Atomization (USGA) 31 2.2.6 Centrifugal
Atomization 34 2.2.7 Mono-sized Droplet Atomization 36 2.3 Formation of
Droplets 38 2.3.1 Regimes of Liquid Breakup 38 2.3.2 Mechanisms of
Atomization 38 2.3.3 Atomization of Cylindrical Liquids 43 2.3.4
Atomization of Liquid Sheets 45 2.3.5 Droplet Formation Under Conventional
Gas Atomization Conditions 47 2.3.6 Droplet Formation During Centrifugal
Atomization 49 2.4 Control of Atomization Parameters 50 2.4.1
Classification of Processing Variables 50 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Metal
Flow Rate 50 2.4.3 Metal Flow Rate 55 2.4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Velocity 57
2.5 Powder Size Distribution 61 2.5.1 Powder Size 62 2.5.2 Size
Distribution 63 2.6 Effect of Processing Variables 64 2.6.1 Important
Atomization Variables 64 2.6.2 Atomization Pressure 64 2.6.3 Liquid Flow
Rate 66 2.6.4 Gas Velocity 67 2.6.5 Gas Flow Rate 69 2.6.6 Mechanical
Disturbances 70 2.6.7 Physical Properties of Atomization Gas 71 2.6.8
Liquid Viscosity 71 2.6.9 Liquid Surface Tension 73 2.6.10 Fluid
Temperature 74 2.6.11 Solidification Event 76 2.6.12 Apex Angle 78 2.6.13
Variables in Centrifugal Atomization 78 2.7 Theoretical Models of
Atomization 80 2.7.1 Breakup of Liquid Rods or Fragments 80 2.7.2 Formation
of Droplets by Sheet Breakup 82 2.8 Empirical Models 86 2.8.1 Nukiyama and
Tanasawa Analysis 87 2.8.2 Wigg Analysis 87 2.8.3 Kim and Marshall Analysis
90 2.8.4 Schmitt Analysis 91 2.8.5 Weiss and Worsham Analysis 91 2.8.6
Lubanska Analysis 92 2.9 Summary 94 Nomenclature 94 References 96 3 Heat
Transfer and Solidification of Droplets 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2
Important Thermal and Solidification Conditions 103 3.2.1 Thermal
Conditions 103 3.2.2 Solidification Considerations 105 3.3 Heat Transfer
107 3.3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 107 3.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient 109
3.3.3 Gas Velocity 111 3.3.4 Droplet Velocity 112 3.4 Nucleation 116 3.4.1
Homogeneous Nucleation 117 3.4.1.1 Free Energy of Nucleation 117 3.4.1.2
Nucleation Rate 120 3.4.1.3 Homogeneous Undercooling 121 3.4.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation 125 3.4.2.1 Heterogeneous Nucleants 126 3.4.2.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation Undercooling 128 3.4.2.3 Distribution of Nucleants
130 3.5 Solidification of Droplets 134 3.5.1 Temperature Distribution in
Droplets 135 3.5.2 Newtonian Solidification 136 3.5.3 Cooling Rate 137
3.5.4 Solidification Time 140 3.5.5 Interfacial Velocity 141 3.5.5.1
Equilibrium Solidification 141 3.5.5.2 Dynamic Solidification 143 3.5.5.3
Stepwise Growth 145 3.5.5.4 Experimentally Determined Interfacial
Velocities 147 3.6 Microstructural Development 151 3.6.1 Solidification
Morphology 151 3.6.2 Microstrutural Refinement 155 3.6.2.1 Dendrite Arm
Spacing 155 3.6.2.2 Grain Size 159 3.6.3 Phase Selection 162 3.6.4 Solute
Redistribution 166 3.7 Summary 169 Nomenclature 170 References 172 4
Composite Powders for Additive Manufacturing 179 4.1 Introduction 179 4.2
Fabrication Methods 180 4.2.1 Atomization and Co-injection 180 4.2.2
Atomization of Premixed MMCs 186 4.2.3 Reactive Atomization 186 4.2.3.1
Gas-Liquid Interactions 186 4.2.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Interactions 192 4.2.3.3
Liquid-Solid Interactions 192 4.3 Incorporation of Reinforcements During
Co-injection 193 4.3.1 Incorporation Behavior of Reinforcements 193 4.3.2
Penetration of Semiliquid Droplets 197 4.3.2.1 Energy Balance 198 4.3.2.2
Force Balance 200 4.3.2.3 Combined Energy and Force Balance 201 4.3.2.4
Penetration Depth 204 4.3.2.5 Particle Type, Morphology, and Solid Fraction
204 4.3.3 Penetration of Solid Droplets 206 4.4 Particle Behavior During
Solidification 207 4.4.1 Engulfment of Reinforcements by Solid-Liquid
Interface 207 4.4.1.1 Mass Balance 209 4.4.1.2 Force Balance 209 4.4.1.3
Thermal Field 210 4.4.1.4 Thermal Field and Force Balance 211 4.4.1.5
Engulfment During Droplet Solidification 211 4.4.2 Mechanical Entrapment of
Reinforcements by Solidification Fronts 213 4.4.3 Reinforcement-Induced
Nucleation 214 4.4.3.1 Free Energy Effects 214 4.4.3.2 Thermal Effects 215
4.5 Other Methods for Fabricating MMC Powders 219 4.5.1 Mechanical Milling
and Cryomilling 220 4.5.2 Surface Coating 224 4.5.3 Reaction Synthesis 226
4.6 Summary 227 Nomenclature 228 References 230 5 Diagnostic and
Characterization Techniques 235 5.1 Introduction 235 5.2 Flow Visualization
Techniques 235 5.3 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) 239 5.4 Particle
Counting, Sizing, and Velocity Probe (PCSV-P) 243 5.5 High-Speed
Cinematography/Video 246 5.6 High-Speed Off-Axis Holographic Cinematography
249 5.7 Infrared Thermal Imaging 252 5.8 Phase Doppler Particle Analysis
(PDPA) 253 5.9 Surface Ionization For Monitoring Particles (SIMP) 255 5.10
Intelligent Sensors 255 5.11 Summary 259 References 260 6 Atomization
Improvements for Additive Manufacturing 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Gas
and Metal Flow Rates 263 6.3 Gas Velocity 264 6.4 Physical Characteristics
of the Gas and Melt 265 6.5 Powder Size Distribution and Other Variables
266 6.6 Powder Morphology 268 6.7 Powder Satellites 272 6.8 Powder Porosity
275 6.9 Summary 278 Nomenclature 278 References 279 7 Atomization of Alloys
283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Aluminum-Based Alloys and Powders 283 7.2.1
Al-Based Alloy Powders 284 7.2.2 Al-Si Alloys 285 7.2.3 Al-Cu Alloys 288
7.2.4 Al-Transition Metal Alloys 289 7.2.5 Al-Li Alloys 289 7.2.6
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys 292 7.3 Iron-Based Alloys and Powders 296 7.3.1 Fe-Based
Alloy Powders 297 7.3.2 Stainless Steels 300 7.3.3 Tool Steels 301 7.3.4
Other Iron-Based Materials 303 7.4 Nickel-Based Alloys and Powders 303
7.4.1 Ni-Based Alloy Powders 304 7.4.2 Inconel Alloys 306 7.4.3 René Alloys
308 7.4.4 Other Superalloys 310 7.5 Titanium-Based Alloy and Powders 311
7.5.1 Ti-Based Alloys 311 7.5.2 Ti-Based Alloy Powders 313 7.6 Cobalt-Based
Alloys and Powder 319 7.6.1 Co-Based Alloys 319 7.6.2 Co-Based Alloy
Powders 321 7.7 High-Entropy Alloys and Powders 323 7.7.1 High-Entropy
Alloys 323 7.7.2 High-Entropy Alloy Powders 325 7.8 Summary 329
Nomenclature 329 References 331 Part II Powders in Additive Manufacturing
341 8 Overview of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies 343 8.1 History
of Metal Additive Manufacturing Techniques 343 8.2 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
345 8.2.1 PBF Processing Principles 345 8.2.2 Feedstock Powder for PBF 347
8.2.3 Post-processing After PBF 348 8.3 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
348 8.3.1 DED Processing Principles 348 8.3.2 Feedstock Powder for DED 349
8.3.3 Post-processing After DED 351 8.4 Metal Binder Jetting 351 8.4.1 BJT
Processing Principles 351 8.4.2 Feedstock Powder for BJT 352 8.4.3
Post-processing After BJT 352 8.5 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 353 8.6 Summary
354 Acronym/Nomenclature 354 References 355 9 Powder-Laser-Melt Pool
Interactions 361 9.1 Introduction 361 9.2 Laser and Laser-Material
Interactions 362 9.2.1 Laser-Matter Interactions 362 9.2.2 Laser-Material
Processing 363 9.3 Laser-Material Interactions During DED Processing 364
9.3.1 Inflight Particle Heating 364 9.3.2 Thermal Behavior of Melt Pool 366
9.3.3 Interactions Between Particles and Melt Pool 367 9.4 Laser-Material
Interactions During PBF Processing 372 9.4.1 Powder Layer Characteristics
and Spreading 373 9.4.2 Laser Beam-Powder Interactions 375 9.4.3 Spatter
and Denudation Formation 378 9.4.4 Powder Degradation 381 9.5 Summary 383
Nomenclature 383 References 384 10 Influence of Powder Chemistry on
Additive Manufacturing 387 10.1 Introduction 387 10.2 Alloy Compositions
387 10.3 Impurities and Segregation 391 10.4 High Entropy Alloys
(Multi-Principal Element Alloys) 392 10.5 Metal Matrix Composites 394 10.6
In-Situ Alloying (In-Process Alloying) 396 10.7 Summary 397 Nomenclature
397 References 397 11 Physical Powder Characteristics and Additive
Manufacturing 403 11.1 Introduction 403 11.2 Characterization of Physical
Powder Properties 403 11.2.1 Powder Sampling 403 11.2.2 Particle Size and
Particle Size Distribution 405 11.2.3 Particle Morphology 407 11.2.4 Powder
Flow Characteristics 409 11.3 Powder Production Methods 412 11.3.1 Gas
Atomization 413 11.3.2 Water Atomization 413 11.3.3 Mechanical Milling 414
11.4 Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery 414 11.5 Influence of Powder
Production Methods and Parameters On Powder Properties and Additive
Manufacturing 416 11.6 Influence of Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery
on Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing 420 11.7
Postproduction Methods for Treating Powders 423 11.8 Summary 425
Nomenclature 426 References 427 12 Microstructure Evolution and Powder
Effects 433 12.1 Introduction 433 12.2 Grain Structure and Phase
Composition 433 12.2.1 Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET) 433 12.2.2
Phase Composition 439 12.3 Solidification Kinetics 441 12.4 Solid-State AM
445 12.5 Summary 448 Nomenclature 448 References 450 13 Defect Formation
and Powder Effects 455 13.1 Introduction 455 13.2 Porosity 455 13.3
Cracking and Delamination 460 13.4 Interfacial Structure and Grain Size 462
13.5 Segregation 470 13.6 Surface Roughness 472 13.7 Summary 475
Nomenclature 475 References 476 14 Residual Stress and Powder Effects 479
14.1 Introduction 479 14.2 Measuring Residual Stress 479 14.3 Powder
Characteristics 481 14.4 Pre-processing Heat Treatment 482 14.5 Process
Parameters 483 14.6 Post-processing Treatments 487 14.7 Summary 490
Nomenclature 490 References 491 15 Physical and Chemical Behavior and
Powder Effects 493 15.1 Introduction 493 15.2 Density 493 15.3 Surface
Appearance 494 15.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 496 15.5 Hardness 497
15.6 Fracture and Fatigue 498 15.7 Corrosion and Wear 502 15.8 Oxidation
509 15.9 Summary 510 Nomenclature 511 References 511 16 Economic and
Sustainability Assessments of Powder Production and Additive Manufacturing
513 16.1 Introduction 513 16.2 Resource Utilization 513 16.2.1 Materials
Utilization 514 16.2.2 Energy Utilization 516 16.2.3 Other Resources 518
16.3 Economic Assessment 519 16.3.1 Cost Breakdown and Models 520 16.3.2
Supply Chain Effects 524 16.4 Sustainability Assessments 527 16.4.1 Hazard
Traits of Metals and Occupational Exposure Potential 528 16.4.2 Life Cycle
Assessment of Environmental Impact 542 16.5 Summary 546 Nomenclature 547
References 549 17 Future Directions and Challenges 555 17.1 Introduction
555 17.2 Future Directions in the Atomization of Powders 556 17.2.1
Technology Improvements 556 17.2.2 Custom Alloys and Composites 557 17.2.3
Additive Manufacturing 557 17.3 Future Directions and Challenges in the
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys 558 17.3.1 Machine Learning and
Artificial Intelligence 558 17.3.2 Novel Structures 560 17.3.3 Hybrid
Manufacturing 560 17.3.4 Diagnostic Methods 561 17.3.5 Future Challenges
561 17.4 Summary 561 References 562 Index 565
Metallic Powder 1 1 Overview of Atomization Techniques 3 1.1 History of
Metallic Powder and Atomization Techniques 3 1.1.1 Metal Powders 3 1.1.2
Atomizer Designs 4 1.2 Melt Atomization 8 1.3 Gas Atomization (GA) 9 1.4
Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA) 11 1.5 Electrode Induction Melting
Gas Atomization (EIMGA) 12 1.6 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP) 15
1.7 Spark Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (SPDS) 16 1.8 Plasma Induction
Gas Atomization (PIGA) 18 1.9 Plasma-Atomized Wire (PAW) 19 1.10 Water
Atomization (WA) 20 1.11 Summary 22 Nomenclature 23 References 23 2
Atomization 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Atomization Technology 26 2.2.1
Energy Consumption During Atomization 26 2.2.2 Molten Metal Atomization
Methods 27 2.2.3 Subsonic Gas Atomization 28 2.2.4 Supersonic Gas
Atomization 30 2.2.5 Ultrasonic Gas Atomization (USGA) 31 2.2.6 Centrifugal
Atomization 34 2.2.7 Mono-sized Droplet Atomization 36 2.3 Formation of
Droplets 38 2.3.1 Regimes of Liquid Breakup 38 2.3.2 Mechanisms of
Atomization 38 2.3.3 Atomization of Cylindrical Liquids 43 2.3.4
Atomization of Liquid Sheets 45 2.3.5 Droplet Formation Under Conventional
Gas Atomization Conditions 47 2.3.6 Droplet Formation During Centrifugal
Atomization 49 2.4 Control of Atomization Parameters 50 2.4.1
Classification of Processing Variables 50 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Metal
Flow Rate 50 2.4.3 Metal Flow Rate 55 2.4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Velocity 57
2.5 Powder Size Distribution 61 2.5.1 Powder Size 62 2.5.2 Size
Distribution 63 2.6 Effect of Processing Variables 64 2.6.1 Important
Atomization Variables 64 2.6.2 Atomization Pressure 64 2.6.3 Liquid Flow
Rate 66 2.6.4 Gas Velocity 67 2.6.5 Gas Flow Rate 69 2.6.6 Mechanical
Disturbances 70 2.6.7 Physical Properties of Atomization Gas 71 2.6.8
Liquid Viscosity 71 2.6.9 Liquid Surface Tension 73 2.6.10 Fluid
Temperature 74 2.6.11 Solidification Event 76 2.6.12 Apex Angle 78 2.6.13
Variables in Centrifugal Atomization 78 2.7 Theoretical Models of
Atomization 80 2.7.1 Breakup of Liquid Rods or Fragments 80 2.7.2 Formation
of Droplets by Sheet Breakup 82 2.8 Empirical Models 86 2.8.1 Nukiyama and
Tanasawa Analysis 87 2.8.2 Wigg Analysis 87 2.8.3 Kim and Marshall Analysis
90 2.8.4 Schmitt Analysis 91 2.8.5 Weiss and Worsham Analysis 91 2.8.6
Lubanska Analysis 92 2.9 Summary 94 Nomenclature 94 References 96 3 Heat
Transfer and Solidification of Droplets 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2
Important Thermal and Solidification Conditions 103 3.2.1 Thermal
Conditions 103 3.2.2 Solidification Considerations 105 3.3 Heat Transfer
107 3.3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 107 3.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient 109
3.3.3 Gas Velocity 111 3.3.4 Droplet Velocity 112 3.4 Nucleation 116 3.4.1
Homogeneous Nucleation 117 3.4.1.1 Free Energy of Nucleation 117 3.4.1.2
Nucleation Rate 120 3.4.1.3 Homogeneous Undercooling 121 3.4.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation 125 3.4.2.1 Heterogeneous Nucleants 126 3.4.2.2
Heterogeneous Nucleation Undercooling 128 3.4.2.3 Distribution of Nucleants
130 3.5 Solidification of Droplets 134 3.5.1 Temperature Distribution in
Droplets 135 3.5.2 Newtonian Solidification 136 3.5.3 Cooling Rate 137
3.5.4 Solidification Time 140 3.5.5 Interfacial Velocity 141 3.5.5.1
Equilibrium Solidification 141 3.5.5.2 Dynamic Solidification 143 3.5.5.3
Stepwise Growth 145 3.5.5.4 Experimentally Determined Interfacial
Velocities 147 3.6 Microstructural Development 151 3.6.1 Solidification
Morphology 151 3.6.2 Microstrutural Refinement 155 3.6.2.1 Dendrite Arm
Spacing 155 3.6.2.2 Grain Size 159 3.6.3 Phase Selection 162 3.6.4 Solute
Redistribution 166 3.7 Summary 169 Nomenclature 170 References 172 4
Composite Powders for Additive Manufacturing 179 4.1 Introduction 179 4.2
Fabrication Methods 180 4.2.1 Atomization and Co-injection 180 4.2.2
Atomization of Premixed MMCs 186 4.2.3 Reactive Atomization 186 4.2.3.1
Gas-Liquid Interactions 186 4.2.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Interactions 192 4.2.3.3
Liquid-Solid Interactions 192 4.3 Incorporation of Reinforcements During
Co-injection 193 4.3.1 Incorporation Behavior of Reinforcements 193 4.3.2
Penetration of Semiliquid Droplets 197 4.3.2.1 Energy Balance 198 4.3.2.2
Force Balance 200 4.3.2.3 Combined Energy and Force Balance 201 4.3.2.4
Penetration Depth 204 4.3.2.5 Particle Type, Morphology, and Solid Fraction
204 4.3.3 Penetration of Solid Droplets 206 4.4 Particle Behavior During
Solidification 207 4.4.1 Engulfment of Reinforcements by Solid-Liquid
Interface 207 4.4.1.1 Mass Balance 209 4.4.1.2 Force Balance 209 4.4.1.3
Thermal Field 210 4.4.1.4 Thermal Field and Force Balance 211 4.4.1.5
Engulfment During Droplet Solidification 211 4.4.2 Mechanical Entrapment of
Reinforcements by Solidification Fronts 213 4.4.3 Reinforcement-Induced
Nucleation 214 4.4.3.1 Free Energy Effects 214 4.4.3.2 Thermal Effects 215
4.5 Other Methods for Fabricating MMC Powders 219 4.5.1 Mechanical Milling
and Cryomilling 220 4.5.2 Surface Coating 224 4.5.3 Reaction Synthesis 226
4.6 Summary 227 Nomenclature 228 References 230 5 Diagnostic and
Characterization Techniques 235 5.1 Introduction 235 5.2 Flow Visualization
Techniques 235 5.3 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) 239 5.4 Particle
Counting, Sizing, and Velocity Probe (PCSV-P) 243 5.5 High-Speed
Cinematography/Video 246 5.6 High-Speed Off-Axis Holographic Cinematography
249 5.7 Infrared Thermal Imaging 252 5.8 Phase Doppler Particle Analysis
(PDPA) 253 5.9 Surface Ionization For Monitoring Particles (SIMP) 255 5.10
Intelligent Sensors 255 5.11 Summary 259 References 260 6 Atomization
Improvements for Additive Manufacturing 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Gas
and Metal Flow Rates 263 6.3 Gas Velocity 264 6.4 Physical Characteristics
of the Gas and Melt 265 6.5 Powder Size Distribution and Other Variables
266 6.6 Powder Morphology 268 6.7 Powder Satellites 272 6.8 Powder Porosity
275 6.9 Summary 278 Nomenclature 278 References 279 7 Atomization of Alloys
283 7.1 Introduction 283 7.2 Aluminum-Based Alloys and Powders 283 7.2.1
Al-Based Alloy Powders 284 7.2.2 Al-Si Alloys 285 7.2.3 Al-Cu Alloys 288
7.2.4 Al-Transition Metal Alloys 289 7.2.5 Al-Li Alloys 289 7.2.6
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys 292 7.3 Iron-Based Alloys and Powders 296 7.3.1 Fe-Based
Alloy Powders 297 7.3.2 Stainless Steels 300 7.3.3 Tool Steels 301 7.3.4
Other Iron-Based Materials 303 7.4 Nickel-Based Alloys and Powders 303
7.4.1 Ni-Based Alloy Powders 304 7.4.2 Inconel Alloys 306 7.4.3 René Alloys
308 7.4.4 Other Superalloys 310 7.5 Titanium-Based Alloy and Powders 311
7.5.1 Ti-Based Alloys 311 7.5.2 Ti-Based Alloy Powders 313 7.6 Cobalt-Based
Alloys and Powder 319 7.6.1 Co-Based Alloys 319 7.6.2 Co-Based Alloy
Powders 321 7.7 High-Entropy Alloys and Powders 323 7.7.1 High-Entropy
Alloys 323 7.7.2 High-Entropy Alloy Powders 325 7.8 Summary 329
Nomenclature 329 References 331 Part II Powders in Additive Manufacturing
341 8 Overview of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies 343 8.1 History
of Metal Additive Manufacturing Techniques 343 8.2 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
345 8.2.1 PBF Processing Principles 345 8.2.2 Feedstock Powder for PBF 347
8.2.3 Post-processing After PBF 348 8.3 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
348 8.3.1 DED Processing Principles 348 8.3.2 Feedstock Powder for DED 349
8.3.3 Post-processing After DED 351 8.4 Metal Binder Jetting 351 8.4.1 BJT
Processing Principles 351 8.4.2 Feedstock Powder for BJT 352 8.4.3
Post-processing After BJT 352 8.5 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 353 8.6 Summary
354 Acronym/Nomenclature 354 References 355 9 Powder-Laser-Melt Pool
Interactions 361 9.1 Introduction 361 9.2 Laser and Laser-Material
Interactions 362 9.2.1 Laser-Matter Interactions 362 9.2.2 Laser-Material
Processing 363 9.3 Laser-Material Interactions During DED Processing 364
9.3.1 Inflight Particle Heating 364 9.3.2 Thermal Behavior of Melt Pool 366
9.3.3 Interactions Between Particles and Melt Pool 367 9.4 Laser-Material
Interactions During PBF Processing 372 9.4.1 Powder Layer Characteristics
and Spreading 373 9.4.2 Laser Beam-Powder Interactions 375 9.4.3 Spatter
and Denudation Formation 378 9.4.4 Powder Degradation 381 9.5 Summary 383
Nomenclature 383 References 384 10 Influence of Powder Chemistry on
Additive Manufacturing 387 10.1 Introduction 387 10.2 Alloy Compositions
387 10.3 Impurities and Segregation 391 10.4 High Entropy Alloys
(Multi-Principal Element Alloys) 392 10.5 Metal Matrix Composites 394 10.6
In-Situ Alloying (In-Process Alloying) 396 10.7 Summary 397 Nomenclature
397 References 397 11 Physical Powder Characteristics and Additive
Manufacturing 403 11.1 Introduction 403 11.2 Characterization of Physical
Powder Properties 403 11.2.1 Powder Sampling 403 11.2.2 Particle Size and
Particle Size Distribution 405 11.2.3 Particle Morphology 407 11.2.4 Powder
Flow Characteristics 409 11.3 Powder Production Methods 412 11.3.1 Gas
Atomization 413 11.3.2 Water Atomization 413 11.3.3 Mechanical Milling 414
11.4 Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery 414 11.5 Influence of Powder
Production Methods and Parameters On Powder Properties and Additive
Manufacturing 416 11.6 Influence of Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery
on Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing 420 11.7
Postproduction Methods for Treating Powders 423 11.8 Summary 425
Nomenclature 426 References 427 12 Microstructure Evolution and Powder
Effects 433 12.1 Introduction 433 12.2 Grain Structure and Phase
Composition 433 12.2.1 Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET) 433 12.2.2
Phase Composition 439 12.3 Solidification Kinetics 441 12.4 Solid-State AM
445 12.5 Summary 448 Nomenclature 448 References 450 13 Defect Formation
and Powder Effects 455 13.1 Introduction 455 13.2 Porosity 455 13.3
Cracking and Delamination 460 13.4 Interfacial Structure and Grain Size 462
13.5 Segregation 470 13.6 Surface Roughness 472 13.7 Summary 475
Nomenclature 475 References 476 14 Residual Stress and Powder Effects 479
14.1 Introduction 479 14.2 Measuring Residual Stress 479 14.3 Powder
Characteristics 481 14.4 Pre-processing Heat Treatment 482 14.5 Process
Parameters 483 14.6 Post-processing Treatments 487 14.7 Summary 490
Nomenclature 490 References 491 15 Physical and Chemical Behavior and
Powder Effects 493 15.1 Introduction 493 15.2 Density 493 15.3 Surface
Appearance 494 15.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 496 15.5 Hardness 497
15.6 Fracture and Fatigue 498 15.7 Corrosion and Wear 502 15.8 Oxidation
509 15.9 Summary 510 Nomenclature 511 References 511 16 Economic and
Sustainability Assessments of Powder Production and Additive Manufacturing
513 16.1 Introduction 513 16.2 Resource Utilization 513 16.2.1 Materials
Utilization 514 16.2.2 Energy Utilization 516 16.2.3 Other Resources 518
16.3 Economic Assessment 519 16.3.1 Cost Breakdown and Models 520 16.3.2
Supply Chain Effects 524 16.4 Sustainability Assessments 527 16.4.1 Hazard
Traits of Metals and Occupational Exposure Potential 528 16.4.2 Life Cycle
Assessment of Environmental Impact 542 16.5 Summary 546 Nomenclature 547
References 549 17 Future Directions and Challenges 555 17.1 Introduction
555 17.2 Future Directions in the Atomization of Powders 556 17.2.1
Technology Improvements 556 17.2.2 Custom Alloys and Composites 557 17.2.3
Additive Manufacturing 557 17.3 Future Directions and Challenges in the
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys 558 17.3.1 Machine Learning and
Artificial Intelligence 558 17.3.2 Novel Structures 560 17.3.3 Hybrid
Manufacturing 560 17.3.4 Diagnostic Methods 561 17.3.5 Future Challenges
561 17.4 Summary 561 References 562 Index 565