The first part of this book addresses the need to use testing methods and discontinue FPM that is still the major "tool" of reliability development in the electronics industry. FPM is being used by many companies, especially military equipment contractors, as a key guide to developing a reliable product, although there is no supporting evidence of benefit. These probabilistic prediction methods do not produce or help to produce a reliable electronics system from the fact that most failures before technological obsolescence are due to one or more assignable causes, and not intrinsic wear out…mehr
The first part of this book addresses the need to use testing methods and discontinue FPM that is still the major "tool" of reliability development in the electronics industry. FPM is being used by many companies, especially military equipment contractors, as a key guide to developing a reliable product, although there is no supporting evidence of benefit. These probabilistic prediction methods do not produce or help to produce a reliable electronics system from the fact that most failures before technological obsolescence are due to one or more assignable causes, and not intrinsic wear out mechanisms. The first part of the book details the history of existing failure prediction methodologies, also the limitations of these existing methodologies using real field reliability data.The author presents a new approach, using early discovery testing. The methodologies described are derived from HALT (Highly Accelerated Stress Test) and HASS (Highly Accelerated Stress Screening), terms coined by the late Dr Gregg Hobbs. The new school of reliability development is a major paradigm shift because the process shifts the process from attempting to quantify reliability in the time domain (lifetime) whereas HALT references the strength of materials and empirical operational limits. The later chapters provide case study evidence, support and some guidance for electronics reliability engineers on using empirical step stress methods such as HALT to develop reliable, robust assemblies. Applications of this new methodology are described fully.Next Generation HALT and HASS presents a major paradigm shift from reliability prediction-based methods to discovery of electronic systems reliability risks. This is achieved by integrating highly accelerated life test (HALT) and highly accelerated stress screen (HASS) into a physics-of-failure-based robust product and process development methodology. The new methodologies challenge misleading and sometimes costly mis-application of probabilistic failure prediction methods (FPM) and provide a new deterministic map for reliability development. The authors clearly explain the new approach with a logical progression of problem statement and solutions. The book helps engineers employ HALT and HASS by illustrating why the misleading assumptions used for FPM are invalid. Next, the application of HALT and HASS empirical discovery methods to quickly find unreliable elements in electronics systems gives readers practical insight to the techniques. The physics of HALT and HASS methodologies are highlighted, illustrating how they uncover and isolate software failures due to hardware-software interactions in digital systems. The use of empirical operational stress limits for the development of future tools and reliability discriminators is described. Key features: * Provides a clear basis for moving from statistical reliability prediction models to practical methods of insuring and improving reliability. * Challenges existing failure prediction methodologies by highlighting their limitations using real field data. * Explains a practical approach to why and how HALT and HASS are applied to electronics and electromechanical systems. * Presents opportunities to develop reliability test discriminators for prognostics using empirical stress limits. * Guides engineers and managers on the benefits of the deterministic and more efficient methods of HALT and HASS. * Integrates the empirical limit discovery methods of HALT and HASS into a physics of failure based robust product and process development process.
Kirk A. Gray, Accelerated Reliability Solutions, LLC, Colorado, USA John J. Paschkewitz, Product Assurance Engineering, LLC, Missouri, USA
Inhaltsangabe
Series Editor's Foreword xi Preface xiv List of Acronyms xvi Introduction 1 1 Basis and Limitations of Typical Current Reliability Methods and Metrics 5 1.1 The Life Cycle Bathtub Curve 7 1.1.1 Real Electronics Life Cycle Curves 9 1.2 HALT and HASS Approach 11 1.3 The Future of Electronics: Higher Density and Speed and Lower Power 13 1.3.1 There is a Drain in the Bathtub Curve 14 1.4 Use of MTBF as a Reliability Metric 16 1.5 MTBF: What is it Good For? 17 1.5.1 Introduction 17 1.5.2 Examples 18 1.5.3 Conclusion 24 1.5.4 Alternatives to MTBF for Specifying Reliability 25 1.6 Reliability of Systems is Complex 26 1.7 Reliability Testing 28 1.8 Traditional Reliability Development 33 Bibliography 34 2 The Need for Reliability Assurance Reference Metrics to Change 36 2.1 Wear-Out and Technology Obsolescence of Electronics 36 2.2 Semiconductor Life Limiting Mechanisms 37 2.2.1 Overly Optimistic and Misleading Estimates 42 2.3 Lack of Root Cause Field Unreliability Data 43 2.4 Predicting Reliability 48 2.5 Reliability Predictions - Continued Reliance on a Misleading Approach 50 2.5.1 Introduction 51 2.5.2 Prediction History 52 2.5.3 Technical Limitations 53 2.5.4 Keeping Handbooks Up-to-Date 54 2.5.5 Technical Studies - Past and Present 59 2.5.6 Reliability Assessment 62 2.5.7 Efforts to Improve Tools and Their Limitations 63 2.6 Stress-Strength Diagram and Electronics Capability 63 2.7 Testing to Discover Reliability Risks 68 2.8 Stress-Strength Normal Assumption 69 2.8.1 Notation 70 2.8.2 Three Cases 71 2.8.3 Two Normal Distributions 73 2.8.4 Probability of Failure Calculation 73 2.9 A Major Challenge - Distributions Data 73 2.10 HALT Maximizes the Design's Mean Strength 75 2.11 What Does the Term HALT Actually Mean? 78 Bibliography 83 3 Challenges to Advancing Electronics Reliability Engineering 86 3.1 Disclosure of Real Failure Data is Rare 86 3.2 Electronics Materials and Manufacturing Evolution 89 Bibliography 91 4 A New Deterministic Reliability Development Paradigm 92 4.1 Introduction 92 4.2 Understanding Customer Needs and Expectations 95 4.3 Anticipating Risks and Potential Failure Modes 98 4.4 Robust Design for Reliability 104 4.5 Diagnostic and Prognostic Considerations and Features 110 4.6 Knowledge Capture for Reuse 110 4.7 Accelerated Test to Failure to Find Empirical Design Limits 112 4.8 Design Confirmation Testing: Quantitative Accelerated Life Test 113 4.9 Limitations of Success Based Compliance Test 114 4.10 Production Validation Testing 115 4.11 Failure Analysis and Design Review Based on Test Results 116 Bibliography 120 5 Common Understanding of HALT Approach is Critical for Success 122 5.1 HALT - Now a Very Common Term 123 5.2 HALT - Change from Failure Prediction to Failure Discovery 124 5.2.1 Education on the HALT Paradigm 125 5.3 Serial Education of HALT May Increase Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt 130 5.3.1 While You Were Busy in the Lab 132 5.3.2 Product Launch Time - Too Late, But Now You May Get the Field Failure Data 132 6 The Fundamentals of HALT 134 6.1 Discovering System Stress Limits 134 6.2 HALT is a Simple Concept - Adaptation is the Challenge 135 6.3 Cost of Reliable vs Unreliable Design 136 6.4 HALT Stress Limits and Estimates of Failure Rates 137 6.4.1 What Level of Assembly Should HALT be Applied? 137 6.4.2 HALT of Supplier Subsystems 138 6.5 Defining Operational Limit and Destruct Limits 138 6.6 Efficient Cooling and Heating in HALT 139 6.6.1 Stress Monitoring Instrumentation 139 6.6.2 Single and Combined Stresses 140 6.7 Applying HALT 142 6.7.1 Order of HALT Stress Application 143 6.8 Thermal HALT Process 144 6.8.1 Disabling Thermal Overstress Protection Circuits 145 6.8.2 HALT Limit Comparisons 146 6.8.3 Cold Thermal HALT 148 6.8.4 Hot Thermal HALT 150 6.8.5 Post Thermal HALT 151 6.9 Random Vibration HALT 152 6.10 Product Configurations for HALT 155 6.10.1 Other Configuration Considerations for HALT 156 6.11 Lessons Learned from HALT 157 6.12 Failure Analysis after HALT 159 7 Highly Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) and Audits (HASA) 161 7.1 The Use of Stress Screening on Electronics 161 7.2 'Infant Mortality' Failures are Reliability Issues 163 7.2.1 HASS is a Production Insurance Process 164 7.3 Developing a HASS 167 7.3.1 Precipitation and Detection Screens 168 7.3.2 Stresses Applied in HASS 172 7.3.3 Verification of HASS Safety for Defect Free Products 173 7.3.4 Applying the SOS to Validate the HASS Process 174 7.3.5 HASS and Field Life 177 7.4 Unique Pneumatic Multi-axis RS Vibration Characteristics 177 7.5 HALT and HASS Case History 179 7.5.1 Background 179 7.5.2 HALT 180 7.5.3 HASS (HASA) 181 7.5.4 Cost avoidance 183 Bibliography 184 7.6 Benefits of HALT and HASS with Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) 184 7.6.1 Stress Testing for Diagnosis and Prognosis 185 7.6.2 HALT, HASS and Relevance to PHM 186 Bibliography 189 8 HALT Benefits for Software/Firmware Performance and Reliability 190 8.1 Software - Hardware Interactions and Operational Reliability 190 8.1.1 Digital Signal Quality and Reliability 193 8.1.2 Temperature and Signal Propagation 194 8.1.3 Temperature Operational Limits and Destruct Limits in Digital Systems 197 8.2 Stimulation of Systematic Parametric Variations 198 8.2.1 Parametric Failures of ICs 199 8.2.2 Stimulation of Systematic Parametric Variations 201 Bibliography 205 9 Design Confirmation Test: Quantitative Accelerated Life Test (ALT) 207 9.1 Introduction to Accelerated Life Test 207 9.2 Accelerated Degradation Testing 211 9.3 Accelerated Life Test Planning 212 9.4 Pitfalls of Accelerated Life Testing 215 9.5 Analysis Considerations 216 Bibliography 217 10 Failure Analysis and Corrective Action 218 10.1 Failure Analysis and Knowledge Capture 218 10.2 Review of Test Results and Failure Analysis 220 10.3 Capture Test and Failure Analysis Results for Access on Follow-on Projects 221 10.4 Analyzing Production and Field Return Failures 222 Bibliography 222 11 Additional Applications of HALT Methods 223 11.1 Future of Reliability Engineering and HALT Methodology 223 11.2 Winning the Hearts and Minds of the HALT Skeptics 225 11.2.1 Analysis of Field Failures 225 11.3 Test of No Fault Found Units 226 11.4 HALT for Reliable Supplier Selection 226 11.5 Comparisons of Stress Limits for Reliability Assessments 228 11.6 Multiple Stress Limit Boundary Maps 230 11.7 Robustness Indicator Figures 235 11.8 Focusing on Deterministic Weakness Discovery Will Lead to New Tools 235 11.9 Application of Limit Tests, AST and HALT Methodology to Products Other Than Electronics 236 Bibliography 238 Appendix: HALT and Reliability Case Histories 239 A.1 HALT Program at Space Systems Loral 240 A.2 Software Fault Isolation Using HALT and HASS 243 A.3 Watlow HALT and HASS Application 253 A.4 HALT and HASS Application in Electric Motor Control Electronics 256 A.5 A HALT to HASS Case Study - Power Conversion Systems 261 Index 268
Series Editor's Foreword xi Preface xiv List of Acronyms xvi Introduction 1 1 Basis and Limitations of Typical Current Reliability Methods and Metrics 5 1.1 The Life Cycle Bathtub Curve 7 1.1.1 Real Electronics Life Cycle Curves 9 1.2 HALT and HASS Approach 11 1.3 The Future of Electronics: Higher Density and Speed and Lower Power 13 1.3.1 There is a Drain in the Bathtub Curve 14 1.4 Use of MTBF as a Reliability Metric 16 1.5 MTBF: What is it Good For? 17 1.5.1 Introduction 17 1.5.2 Examples 18 1.5.3 Conclusion 24 1.5.4 Alternatives to MTBF for Specifying Reliability 25 1.6 Reliability of Systems is Complex 26 1.7 Reliability Testing 28 1.8 Traditional Reliability Development 33 Bibliography 34 2 The Need for Reliability Assurance Reference Metrics to Change 36 2.1 Wear-Out and Technology Obsolescence of Electronics 36 2.2 Semiconductor Life Limiting Mechanisms 37 2.2.1 Overly Optimistic and Misleading Estimates 42 2.3 Lack of Root Cause Field Unreliability Data 43 2.4 Predicting Reliability 48 2.5 Reliability Predictions - Continued Reliance on a Misleading Approach 50 2.5.1 Introduction 51 2.5.2 Prediction History 52 2.5.3 Technical Limitations 53 2.5.4 Keeping Handbooks Up-to-Date 54 2.5.5 Technical Studies - Past and Present 59 2.5.6 Reliability Assessment 62 2.5.7 Efforts to Improve Tools and Their Limitations 63 2.6 Stress-Strength Diagram and Electronics Capability 63 2.7 Testing to Discover Reliability Risks 68 2.8 Stress-Strength Normal Assumption 69 2.8.1 Notation 70 2.8.2 Three Cases 71 2.8.3 Two Normal Distributions 73 2.8.4 Probability of Failure Calculation 73 2.9 A Major Challenge - Distributions Data 73 2.10 HALT Maximizes the Design's Mean Strength 75 2.11 What Does the Term HALT Actually Mean? 78 Bibliography 83 3 Challenges to Advancing Electronics Reliability Engineering 86 3.1 Disclosure of Real Failure Data is Rare 86 3.2 Electronics Materials and Manufacturing Evolution 89 Bibliography 91 4 A New Deterministic Reliability Development Paradigm 92 4.1 Introduction 92 4.2 Understanding Customer Needs and Expectations 95 4.3 Anticipating Risks and Potential Failure Modes 98 4.4 Robust Design for Reliability 104 4.5 Diagnostic and Prognostic Considerations and Features 110 4.6 Knowledge Capture for Reuse 110 4.7 Accelerated Test to Failure to Find Empirical Design Limits 112 4.8 Design Confirmation Testing: Quantitative Accelerated Life Test 113 4.9 Limitations of Success Based Compliance Test 114 4.10 Production Validation Testing 115 4.11 Failure Analysis and Design Review Based on Test Results 116 Bibliography 120 5 Common Understanding of HALT Approach is Critical for Success 122 5.1 HALT - Now a Very Common Term 123 5.2 HALT - Change from Failure Prediction to Failure Discovery 124 5.2.1 Education on the HALT Paradigm 125 5.3 Serial Education of HALT May Increase Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt 130 5.3.1 While You Were Busy in the Lab 132 5.3.2 Product Launch Time - Too Late, But Now You May Get the Field Failure Data 132 6 The Fundamentals of HALT 134 6.1 Discovering System Stress Limits 134 6.2 HALT is a Simple Concept - Adaptation is the Challenge 135 6.3 Cost of Reliable vs Unreliable Design 136 6.4 HALT Stress Limits and Estimates of Failure Rates 137 6.4.1 What Level of Assembly Should HALT be Applied? 137 6.4.2 HALT of Supplier Subsystems 138 6.5 Defining Operational Limit and Destruct Limits 138 6.6 Efficient Cooling and Heating in HALT 139 6.6.1 Stress Monitoring Instrumentation 139 6.6.2 Single and Combined Stresses 140 6.7 Applying HALT 142 6.7.1 Order of HALT Stress Application 143 6.8 Thermal HALT Process 144 6.8.1 Disabling Thermal Overstress Protection Circuits 145 6.8.2 HALT Limit Comparisons 146 6.8.3 Cold Thermal HALT 148 6.8.4 Hot Thermal HALT 150 6.8.5 Post Thermal HALT 151 6.9 Random Vibration HALT 152 6.10 Product Configurations for HALT 155 6.10.1 Other Configuration Considerations for HALT 156 6.11 Lessons Learned from HALT 157 6.12 Failure Analysis after HALT 159 7 Highly Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) and Audits (HASA) 161 7.1 The Use of Stress Screening on Electronics 161 7.2 'Infant Mortality' Failures are Reliability Issues 163 7.2.1 HASS is a Production Insurance Process 164 7.3 Developing a HASS 167 7.3.1 Precipitation and Detection Screens 168 7.3.2 Stresses Applied in HASS 172 7.3.3 Verification of HASS Safety for Defect Free Products 173 7.3.4 Applying the SOS to Validate the HASS Process 174 7.3.5 HASS and Field Life 177 7.4 Unique Pneumatic Multi-axis RS Vibration Characteristics 177 7.5 HALT and HASS Case History 179 7.5.1 Background 179 7.5.2 HALT 180 7.5.3 HASS (HASA) 181 7.5.4 Cost avoidance 183 Bibliography 184 7.6 Benefits of HALT and HASS with Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) 184 7.6.1 Stress Testing for Diagnosis and Prognosis 185 7.6.2 HALT, HASS and Relevance to PHM 186 Bibliography 189 8 HALT Benefits for Software/Firmware Performance and Reliability 190 8.1 Software - Hardware Interactions and Operational Reliability 190 8.1.1 Digital Signal Quality and Reliability 193 8.1.2 Temperature and Signal Propagation 194 8.1.3 Temperature Operational Limits and Destruct Limits in Digital Systems 197 8.2 Stimulation of Systematic Parametric Variations 198 8.2.1 Parametric Failures of ICs 199 8.2.2 Stimulation of Systematic Parametric Variations 201 Bibliography 205 9 Design Confirmation Test: Quantitative Accelerated Life Test (ALT) 207 9.1 Introduction to Accelerated Life Test 207 9.2 Accelerated Degradation Testing 211 9.3 Accelerated Life Test Planning 212 9.4 Pitfalls of Accelerated Life Testing 215 9.5 Analysis Considerations 216 Bibliography 217 10 Failure Analysis and Corrective Action 218 10.1 Failure Analysis and Knowledge Capture 218 10.2 Review of Test Results and Failure Analysis 220 10.3 Capture Test and Failure Analysis Results for Access on Follow-on Projects 221 10.4 Analyzing Production and Field Return Failures 222 Bibliography 222 11 Additional Applications of HALT Methods 223 11.1 Future of Reliability Engineering and HALT Methodology 223 11.2 Winning the Hearts and Minds of the HALT Skeptics 225 11.2.1 Analysis of Field Failures 225 11.3 Test of No Fault Found Units 226 11.4 HALT for Reliable Supplier Selection 226 11.5 Comparisons of Stress Limits for Reliability Assessments 228 11.6 Multiple Stress Limit Boundary Maps 230 11.7 Robustness Indicator Figures 235 11.8 Focusing on Deterministic Weakness Discovery Will Lead to New Tools 235 11.9 Application of Limit Tests, AST and HALT Methodology to Products Other Than Electronics 236 Bibliography 238 Appendix: HALT and Reliability Case Histories 239 A.1 HALT Program at Space Systems Loral 240 A.2 Software Fault Isolation Using HALT and HASS 243 A.3 Watlow HALT and HASS Application 253 A.4 HALT and HASS Application in Electric Motor Control Electronics 256 A.5 A HALT to HASS Case Study - Power Conversion Systems 261 Index 268
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