P. A. Lakshminarayanan, Nagaraj S. Nayak

Critical Component Wear in Heavy Duty Engines

• Gebundenes Buch

Produktbeschreibung

The critical parts of a heavy duty engine are theoretically designed for infinite life without mechanical fatigue failure. Yet the life of an engine is in reality determined by wear of the critical parts. Even if an engine is designed and built to have normal wear life, abnormal wear takes place either due to special working conditions or increased loading. Understanding abnormal and normal wear enables the engineer to control the external conditions leading to premature wear, or to design the critical parts that have longer wear life and hence lower costs. The literature on wear phenomenon related to engines is scattered in numerous periodicals and books. For the first time, Lakshminarayanan and Nayak bring the tribological aspects of different critical engine components together in one volume, covering key components like the liner, piston, rings, valve, valve train and bearings, with methods to identify and quantify wear.
The first book to combine solutions to critical component wear in one volume
Presents real world case studies with suitable mathematical models for earth movers, power generators, and sea going vessels
Includes material from researchers at Schaeffer Manufacturing (USA), Tekniker (Spain), Fuchs (Germany), BAM (Germany), Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd (India) and Tarabusi (Spain)
Wear simulations and calculations included in the appendices
Instructor presentations slides with book figures available from the companion site

Critical Component Wear in Heavy Duty Engines is aimed at postgraduates in automotive engineering, engine design, tribology, combustion and practitioners involved in engine R&D for applications such as commercial vehicles, cars, stationary engines (for generators, pumps, etc.), boats and ships. This book is also a key reference for senior undergraduates looking to move onto advanced study in the above topics, consultants and product mangers in industry, as well as engineers involved in design of furnaces, gas turbines, and rocket combustion.

Companion website for the book: www.wiley.com/go/lakshmi

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Produktdetails

• Verlag: Wiley & Sons
• 1. Auflage
• Seitenzahl: 352
• Erscheinungstermin: 1. Januar 2012
• Englisch
• Abmessung: 259mm x 177mm x 28mm
• Gewicht: 803g
• ISBN-13: 9780470828823
• ISBN-10: 047082882X
• Artikelnr.: 33684825

Autorenporträt

P.A. Lakshminarayanan is the Head of R&D at Ashok Leyland in India. He has been the team leader or lead designer of about 10 diesel and CNG engines for different applications. He has guided 2 PhDs at IIT Delhi and 4 M.Techs at IIT Madras, and has published 40 papers in ASME, SAE, IMechE, and AVL journals and conferences. Previous appointments include 20 years from Manger to Senior General Manger of R&D at Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd, over 15 years as a Visiting Lecturer at IIT Madras, and 5 years as a Research Associate to J.C. Dent at Loughborough University of Technology. He is a Fellow of SAE-International. Lakshminarayanan holds a B.Tech, and M.S. and a PhD from IIT Madras. Nagaaraj S. Nayak is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering based at Sahyadri College of Engg. & Management. Previously, he was a Senior Manager at the R&D department of Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd for 9 years, and was a Postdoctoral Fellow at University of Wisconsin Madison for 2 years. He has been a team leader for emission upgrades on 3 engines platforms, and performance development of 2 new engine platforms.

Inhaltsangabe

List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xxi
PART I OVERTURE 1
1 Wear in the Heavy Duty Engine 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Engine Life 3
1.3 Wear in Engines 4
1.3.1 Natural Aging 4
1.4 General Wear Model 5
1.5 Wear of Engine Bearings 5
1.6 Wear of Piston Rings and Liners 6
1.7 Wear of Valves and Valve Guides 6
1.8 Reduction in Wear Life of Critical Parts Due to Contaminants in Oil 6
1.8.1 Oil Analysis 7
1.9 Oils for New Generation Engines with Longer Drain Intervals 8
1.9.1 Engine Oil Developments and Trends 8
1.9.2 Shift in Engine Oil Technology 9
1.10 Filters 9
1.10.1 Air Filter 9
1.10.2 Oil Filter 10
1.10.3 Water Filter 10
1.10.4 Fuel Filter 10
1.11 Types of Wear of Critical Parts in a Highly Loaded Diesel Engine 10
1.11.1 Adhesive Wear 10
1.11.2 Abrasive Wear 11
1.11.3 Fretting Wear 11
1.11.4 Corrosive Wear 11
References 11
2 Engine Size and Life 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Engine Life 13
2.3 Factors on Which Life is Dependent 14
2.4 Friction Force and Power 14
2.4.1 Mechanical Efficiency 14
2.4.2 Friction 15
2.5 Similarity Studies 15
2.5.1 Characteristic Size of an Engine 15
2.5.2 Velocity 16
2.5.3 Oil Film Thickness 17
2.5.4 Velocity Gradient 18
2.5.5 Friction Force or Power 18
2.5.6 Indicated Power and Efficiency 18
2.6 Archard's Law of Wear 20
2.7 Wear Life of Engines 20
2.7.1 Wear Life 20
2.7.2 Nondimensional Wear Depth Achieved During Lifetime 21
2.8 Summary 23
Appendix 2.A Engine Parameters, Mechanical Efficiency and Life 25
Appendix 2.B Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Copper-Lead-Tin
(Cu-Pb-Sn) Bearings 26
Appendix 2.C Hardness and Fatigue Limits of Different Aluminium-Tin
(Al-Sn) Bearings 28
References 29
PART II VALVE TRAIN COMPONENTS 31
3 Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Diesel Engines 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Valve Seat Wear 34
3.2.1 Design Aspects to Reduce Valve Seat Wear Life 34
3.3 Shear Strain and Wear due to Relative Displacement 35
3.4 Wear Model 35
3.4.1 Wear Rate 36
3.5 Finite Element Analysis 37
3.6 Experiments, Results and Discussions 38
3.6.1 Valve and Seat Insert of Existing Design 39
3.6.2 Improved Valve and Seat Insert 39
3.7 Summary 45
3.8 Design Rule for Inlet Valve Seat Wear in High bmep Engines 45
References 45
4 Wear of the Cam Follower and Rocker Toe 47
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Wear of Cam Follower Surfaces 48
4.2.1 Wear Mechanism of the Cam Follower 48
4.3 Typical Modes of Wear 50
4.4 Experiments on Cam Follower Wear 51
4.4.1 Follower Measurement 51
4.5 Dynamics of the Valve Train System of the Pushrod Type 52
4.5.1 Elastohydrodynamic and Transition of Boundary Lubrication 52
4.5.2 Cam and Follower Dynamics 53
4.6 Wear Model 55
4.6.1 Wear Coefficient 55
4.6.2 Valve Train Dynamics and Stress on the Follower 55
4.6.3 Wear Depth 61
4.7 Parametric Study 64
4.7.1 Engine Speed 64
4.7.2 Oil Film Thickness 64
4.8 Wear of the Cast Iron Rocker Toe 64
4.9 Summary 66
References 66
PART III LINER, PISTON AND PISTON RINGS 69
5 Liner Wear: Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contact 71
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Surface Texture of Liners and Rings 72
5.2.1 Surface Finish 72
5.2.2 Honing of Liners 72
5.2.3 Surface Finish Parameters 72
5.2.4 Bearing Area Curve 74
5.2.5 Representation of Bearing Area Curve of Normally Honed Surface or
Surfaces with Peaked Roughness 75
5.3 Wear of Liner Surfaces 76
5.3.1 Asperities 76
5.3.2 Radius of the Asperity in the Transverse Direction 76
5.3.3 Radius in the Longitudinal Direction 77
5.3.4 Sparse Contact 77
5.3.5 Contact Pressures 79
5.3.6 Friction 79
5.3.7 Approach 80
5.3.8 Detachment of Asperities 80
5.4 Wear Model 81
5.4.1 Normally Honed Liner with Peaked Roughness 81
5.4.2 Normal Surface Roughness 81
5.4.3 Fatigue Loading of Asperities 81
5.4.4 Wear Rate 82
5.4.5 Plateau Honed and Other Liners not Normally Honed 83
5.5 Liner Wear Model for Wear of Roughness Peaks in Sparse Contact 85
5.5.1 Parametric Studies 86
5.5.2 Comparison with Archard's Model 88
5.6 Discussions on Wear of Liner Roughness Peaks due to Sparse Contact 89
5.7 Summary 92
Appendix 5.A Sample Calculation of the Wear of a Rough
Plateau Honed Liner 93
References 93
6 Generalized Boundary Conditions for Designing Diesel Pistons 95
6.1 Introduction 95
6.2 Temperature Distribution and Form of the Piston 96
6.2.1 Top Land 96
6.2.2 Skirt 96
6.3 Experimental Mapping of Temperature Field in the Piston 97
6.4 Heat Transfer in Pistons 98
6.4.1 Metal Slab 98
6.5 Calculation of Piston Shape 98
6.5.1 Popular Methods Used Before Finite Element Analysis 99
6.5.2 Calculation by Finite Element Method 101
6.5.3 Experimental Validation 103
6.6 Summary 108
References 109
7 Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylinders 111
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Wear Phenomenon for Liner Surfaces 112
7.2.1 Bore Polishing 112
7.3 Bore Polishing Mechanism 113
7.3.1 Carbon Deposit Build Up on the Piston Top Land 113
7.3.2 Quality of Fuel and Oil 113
7.3.3 Piston Growth by Finite Element Method 113
7.3.4 Piston Secondary Movement 114
7.3.5 Simulation Program 115
7.4 Wear Model 115
7.4.1 Contact Pressures 115
7.4.2 Wear Rate 116
7.5 Calculation Methodology and Study of Bore Polishing Wear 116
7.5.1 Finite Element Analysis 116
7.5.2 Simulation 117
7.6 Case Study on Bore Polishing Wear in Diesel Engine Cylinders 118
7.6.1 Visual Observations 118
7.6.2 Liner Measurements 119
7.6.3 Results of Finite Element Analysis 119
7.6.4 Piston Motion 121
7.6.5 Wear Profile 123
7.6.6 Engine Oil Consumption 125
7.6.7 Methods Used to Reduce Liner Wear 125
7.7 Summary 127
References 127
8 Abrasive Wear of Piston Grooves in Highly Loaded Diesel Engines 129
8.1 Introduction 129
8.2 Wear Phenomenon in Piston Grooves 130
8.2.1 Abrasive Wear 130
8.2.2 Wear Mechanism 130
8.3 Wear Model 132
8.3.1 Real Contact Pressure 132
8.3.2 Approach 132
8.3.3 Wear Rate 132
8.4 Experimental Validation 134
8.4.1 Validation of the Model 134
8.4.2 Wear Measurement 135
8.5 Estimation of Wear Using Sarkar's Model 137
8.5.1 Parametric Study 138
8.6 Summary 139
References 140
9 Abrasive Wear of Liners and Piston Rings 141
9.1 Introduction 141
9.2 Wear of Liner and Ring Surfaces 141
9.3 Design Parameters 143
9.3.1 Piston and Rings Assembly 143
9.3.2 Abrasive Wear 143
9.3.3 Sources of Abrasives 144
9.4 Study of Abrasive Wear on Off-highway Engines 144
9.4.1 Abrasive Wear of Rings 144
9.4.2 Abrasive Wear of Piston Pin and Liners 144
9.4.3 Accelerated Abrasive Wear Test on an Engine to Simulate Operation in
the Field 146
9.5 Winnowing Effect 149
9.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Abrasive Wear 150
9.7 Critical Dosage of Sand and Life of Piston-Ring-Liner Assembly 150
9.7.1 Simulation of Engine Life 151
9.8 Summary 152
References 153
10 Corrosive Wear 155
10.1 Introduction 155
10.2 Operating Parameters 155
10.2.1 Corrosive Wear 155
10.3 Corrosive Wear Study on Off-road Application Engines 156
10.3.1 Accelerated Corrosive Wear Test 156
10.4 Wear Related to Coolants in an Engine 161
10.4.1 Under-cooling of Liners by Design 161
10.4.2 Coolant Related Wear 161
10.5 Summary 165
References 165
11 Tribological Tests to Simulate Wear on Piston Rings 167
11.1 Introduction 167
11.2 Friction and Wear Tests 168
11.2.1 Testing Friction and Wear of the Tribo-System Piston Ring and
Cylinder Liner Outside of Engines 168
11.3 Test Procedures Assigned to the High Frequency, Linear Oscillating
Test Machine 170
11.4 Load, Friction and Wear Tests 172
11.4.1 EP Test 172
11.4.2 Scuffing Test 172
11.4.3 Reagents and Materials 172
11.5 Test Results 175
11.5.1 Selection of Coatings for Piston Rings 175
11.5.2 Scuffing Tribological Test 178
11.5.3 Hot Endurance Test 179
11.6 Selection of Lubricants 184
11.7 High Performance Bio-lubricants and Tribo-reactive Materials for Clean
Automotive Applications 185
11.7.1 Synthetic Esters 185
11.7.2 Polyalkyleneglycols 185
11.8 Tribo-Active Materials 190
11.8.1 Thematic 'Piston Rings' 190
11.9 EP Tribological Tests 192
11.9.1 Piston Ring Cylinder Liner Simulation 192
Acknowledgements 194
References 194
PART IV ENGINE BEARINGS 197
12 Friction and Wear in Engine Bearings 199
12.1 Introduction 199
12.2 Engine Bearing Materials 202
12.2.1 Babbitt or White Metal 202
12.2.2 Copper-Lead Alloys 203
12.2.3 Aluminium-based Materials 204
12.3 Functions of Engine Bearing Layers 205
12.4 Types of Overlays/Coatings in Engine Bearings 206
12.4.1 Lead-based Overlays 208
12.4.2 Tin-based Overlays 208
12.4.3 Sputter Bearing Overlays 208
12.4.4 Polymer-based Overlays 208
12.5 Coatings for Engine Bearings 209
12.6 Relevance of Lubrication Regimes in the Study of Bearing Wear 210
12.6.1 Boundary Lubrication 212
12.6.2 Mixed Film Lubrication 215
12.6.3 Fluid Film Lubrication 216
12.7 Theoretical Friction and Wear in Bearings 217
12.7.1 Friction 217
12.8 Wear 218
12.9 Mechanisms of Wear 219
12.9.1 Adhesive Wear 220
12.9.2 Abrasive Wear 223
12.9.3 Erosive Wear 230
12.10 Requirements of Engine Bearing Materials 234
12.11 Characterization Tests for Wear Behaviour of Engine Bearings 238
12.11.1 Fatigue Strength 239
12.11.2 Pin-on-disk Test 239
12.11.3 Scratch Test for Bond Strength 241
12.12 Summary 251
References 252
PART V LUBRICATING OILS FOR MODERN ENGINES 253
13 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Oils, Emission Strategies and their Effect on
Engine Oils 255
13.1 Introduction 255
13.2 What Drives the Changes in Diesel Engine Oil Specifications? 256
13.2.1 Role of the Government 256
13.2.2 OEMs' Role 257
13.2.3 The Consumer's Role 258
13.3 Engine Oil Requirements 258
13.3.1 Overview and What an Engine Oil Must Do 258
13.4 Components of Engine Oil Performance 265
13.4.1 Viscosity 265
13.4.2 Protection against Wear, Deposits and Oil Deterioration 268
13.5 How Engine Oil Performance Standards are Developed 268
13.5.1 Phase 1: Category Request and Evaluation (API, 2011a, pp. 36, 37)
269
13.5.2 Phase 2: Category Development (API, 2011a, pp. 41, 42) 271
13.5.3 Phase 3: Category Implementation (API, 2011a, p. 45) 273
13.5.4 API Licensing Process 275
13.6 API Service Classifications 276
13.7 ACEA Specifications 276
13.7.1 Current E Sequences 278
13.8 OEM Specifications 279
13.9 Why Some API Service Classifications Become Obsolete 279
13.10 Engine Oil Composition 280
13.10.1 Base Oils 280
13.10.2 Refining Processes Used to Produce Lubricating Oil Base Stocks 281
13.10.3 Synthetic Base Oils 285
13.10.4 Synthetic Blends 286
13.10.5 API Base Oil Categories 286
13.11 Specific Engine Oil Additive Chemistry 290
13.11.1 Detergent-Dispersant Additives 290
13.11.2 Anti-Wear Additives 294
13.11.3 Friction Modifiers 295
13.11.4 Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors 296
13.11.5 Oxidation Inhibitors (Antioxidants) 296
13.11.6 Viscosity Index Improvers 298
13.11.7 Pour Point Depressants 300
13.11.8 Foam Inhibitors 301
13.12 Maintaining and Changing Engine Oils 302
13.12.1 Oil Change Intervals 303
13.12.2 Used Engine Oil Analysis 303
13.13 Diesel Engine Oil Trends 306
13.14 Engine Design Technologies and Strategies Used to Control Emissions
306
13.14.1 High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) Fuel System 309
13.14.2 Combustion Optimization 310
13.14.3 Advanced Turbocharging 312
13.14.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 313
13.14.5 Advanced Combustion Emissions Reduction Technology 314
13.14.6 Crankcase Ventilation 315
13.14.7 Exhaust After-Treatment 315
13.14.8 On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) 324
13.15 Impact of Emission Strategies on Engine Oils 324
13.15.1 Impact of Cooled EGR on Engine Oil 325
13.15.2 Effects of Post-Injection on Engine Oils 327
13.16 How Have Engine Oils Changed to Cope with the Demands of Low
Emissions? 328
13.17 Most Prevalent API Specifications Found In Use 329
13.17.1 API CH-4 329
13.17.2 API CI-4 330
13.17.3 API CI-4 Plus 331
13.17.4 API CJ-4 333
13.18 Paradigm Shift in Engine Oil Technology 336
13.18.1 Backward Compatibility and Engine Tests 337
13.18.2 New Engine Sequence Tests 338
13.18.3 Previous Engine Oil Sequence Tests 343
13.18.4 Differences Between CJ-4 and Previous Categories and Benefits of
Using CJ-4 Engine Oils 347
13.19 Future Engine Oil Developments 348
13.20 Summary 352
References 353
PART VI FUEL INJECTION EQUIPMENT 355
14 Wear of Fuel Injection Equipment 357
14.1 Introduction 357
14.2 Wear due to Diesel Fuel Quality 357
14.2.1 Lubricity of Mineral Diesel Fuel 357
14.2.2 Oxygen Content of Biodiesel 361
14.3 Wear due to Abrasive Dust in Fuel 361
14.3.1 Wear of Injector Nozzle due to Heat and Dust 361
14.3.2 Fuel Filters 364
14.4 Wear due to Water in Fuel 365
14.4.1 Corrosive Wear due to Water Ingress 365
14.4.2 Use of Emulsified Water for Reducing Nitric Oxides in Large Engines
365
14.4.3 Microbiological Contamination of Fuel Systems 366
14.4.4 Water Separators 367
14.5 Summary 367
References 367
PART VII HEAVY FUEL ENGINES 369
15 Wear with Heavy Fuel Oil Operation 371
15.1 Introduction 371
15.2 Fuel Treatment: Filtration and Homogenization 373
15.3 Water and Chlorine 374
15.3.1 Fuel Injection Equipment 374
15.4 Viscosity, Carbon Residue and Dust 374
15.4.1 Fuel Injection Equipment 374
15.5 Deposit Build Up on Top Land and Anti-polishing Ring for Reducing the
Wear of Liner, Rings and Piston 375
15.6 High Sulfur in Fuel 377
15.6.1 Formation of Sulfuric Acid 377
15.6.2 Mechanism of Corrosive Attack by Sulfuric Acid 377
15.6.3 Control of Corrosion by Basicity and Oil Consumption 378
15.6.4 Control of Sulfur Corrosion by Maintaining Cooling Water Temperature
High 379
15.7 Low Sulfur in Fuel 380
15.7.1 Lubricity 380
15.7.2 Lack of Formation of Oil Pockets on the Liner Bore 381
15.7.3 Sudden Severe Wear of Liner and Rings 382
15.8 Catalyst Fines 383
15.9 High Temperature Corrosion 383
15.9.1 Turbocharger 385
15.9.2 Exhaust Valves 385
15.10 Wear Specific to Four-stroke HFO Engines 388
15.10.1 Wear of Bearings 388
15.10.2 Inlet Valve 391
15.10.3 Corrosive Wear of Valve Tips 391
15.11 New Engines Compliant to Maritime Emission Standards 391
15.11.1 Steps to Satisfy Emission Standards 391
15.12 Wear Life of an HFO Engine 393
15.13 Summary 393
References 394
PART VIII FILTERS 397
16 Air and Oil Filtration and Its Impact on Oil Life and Engine Wear Life
399
16.1 Introduction 399
16.2 Mechanisms of Filtration 400
16.3 Classification of Filtration 400
16.3.1 Classification by Filter Media 401
16.3.2 Classification by Direction of Flow 402
16.3.3 Classification by Filter Size 402
16.4 Filter Rating 403
16.4.1 Absolute Rating 403
16.4.2 Nominal Rating 403
16.4.3 Mean Filter Rating 403
16.4.4 b Ratio 403
16.4.5 Efficiency 404
16.5 Filter Selection 404
16.6 Introduction to Different Filters in the Engine 405
16.6.1 Air Filters 405
16.6.2 Cleaning Air Filters and Impact on Wear Life 409
16.7 Oil Filters and Impact on Oil and Engine Life 409
16.7.1 Oil Performance and Life 410
16.7.2 Oil Stress 411
16.7.3 Application of the Concept of Oil Stress 413
16.7.4 Advances in Oil Filter Technology 413
16.8 Engine Wear 413
16.8.1 Method to Predict Wear of Critical Engine Components 415
16.9 Full Flow Oil Filters 415
16.9.1 Bypass Filters 417
16.9.2 Centrifugal Filters 418
16.10 Summary 419
Appendix 16.A Filter Tests and Test Standards 419
References 419
Index 421