Shengyi Li, Yifan Dai
Large and Middle-Scale Aperture Aspheric Surfaces
Lapping, Polishing and Measurement
Shengyi Li, Yifan Dai
Large and Middle-Scale Aperture Aspheric Surfaces
Lapping, Polishing and Measurement
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A complete all-in-one reference to aspheric fabrication and testing for optical applications This book provides a detailed introduction to the manufacturing and measurement technologies in aspheric fabrication. For each technology, both basic theory and practical applications are introduced. The book consists of two parts. In the first part, the basic principles of manufacturing technology for aspheric surfaces and key theory for deterministic subaperture polishing of aspheric surfaces are discussed. Then key techniques for high precision figuring such as CCOS with small polishing pad, IBF and…mehr
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A complete all-in-one reference to aspheric fabrication and testing for optical applications This book provides a detailed introduction to the manufacturing and measurement technologies in aspheric fabrication. For each technology, both basic theory and practical applications are introduced. The book consists of two parts. In the first part, the basic principles of manufacturing technology for aspheric surfaces and key theory for deterministic subaperture polishing of aspheric surfaces are discussed. Then key techniques for high precision figuring such as CCOS with small polishing pad, IBF and MRF, are introduced, including the basic principles, theories and applications, mathematical modeling methods, machine design and process parameter selection. It also includes engineering practices and experimental results, based on the three kinds of polishing tools (CCOS, IBF and MRF) developed by the author's research team. In the second part, basic principles of measurement and some typical examples for large and middle-scale aspheric surfaces are discussed. Then, according to the demands of low cost, high accuracy and in-situ measurement methods in the manufacturing process, three kinds of technologies are introduced, such as the Cartesian and swing-arm polar coordinate profilometer, the sub-aperture stitching interferometer and the phase retrieval method based on diffraction principle. Some key techniques are also discussed, including the basic principles, mathematical modeling methods, machine design and process parameter selection, as well as engineering practices and experimental results. Finally, the team's research results about subsurface quality measurement and guarantee methods are also described. This book can be used as a reference for scientists and technologists working in optical manufacturing, ultra-precision machining, precision instruments and measurement, and other precision engineering fields. * A complete all-in-one reference to aspheric fabrication and testing for optical applications * Presents the latest research findings from the author's internationally recognized leading team who are at the cutting edge of the technology * Brings together surface processing and measurement in one complete volume, discussing problems and solutions * Guides the reader from an introductory overview through to more advanced and sophisticated techniques of metrology and manufacturing, suitable for the student and the industry professional
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Hinweis: Dieser Artikel kann nur an eine deutsche Lieferadresse ausgeliefert werden.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 568
- Erscheinungstermin: 10. April 2017
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 244mm x 175mm x 36mm
- Gewicht: 1021g
- ISBN-13: 9781118537466
- ISBN-10: 1118537467
- Artikelnr.: 40551134
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 568
- Erscheinungstermin: 10. April 2017
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 244mm x 175mm x 36mm
- Gewicht: 1021g
- ISBN-13: 9781118537466
- ISBN-10: 1118537467
- Artikelnr.: 40551134
Professor Shengyi Li, College of Mechatronics and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Hunan, China. Prior to moving to the NUDT, Professor Li was a Visiting Scholar at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and Columbia University, both USA. He has contributed to over 200 publications, including 130 refereed journal articles, 6 edited books (all in Chinese) and 11 invited reports. Professor Li's current research interests include ultra-precision machining technology, magnetorheological finishing, ion beam figuring, measurement and control of precision mechatronic system, and theory and technology of modern optical testing. Yifan Dai, Director, Department of Mechatronic Engineering, College of Mechatronic Engineering and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha, China.
About the Author xiii Foreword xv Preface xvii 1 Foundation of the Aspheric
Optical Polishing Technology 1 1.1 Advantages and Application of Aspheric
Optics 1 1.1.1 Advantages of Optical Aspherics 1 1.1.2 The Application of
Aspheric Optical Components in Military Equipment 2 1.1.3 The Aspheric
Optical Components in the Civilian Equipment 2 1.2 The Characteristics of
Manufacturing Aspheric Mirror 3 1.2.1 Requirements of Modern Optical System
on Manufacturing Aspheric Parts 3 1.2.2 The Processing Analysis of Aspheric
Optical Parts 7 1.3 The Manufacturing Technology for Ultra-Smooth Surface 9
1.3.1 Super-Smooth Surface and Its Applications 9 1.3.2 Manufacturing
Technology Overview of Super-Smooth Surface 11 1.3.3 Manufacturing
Technology of Ultra-Smooth Surface Based on the Mechanical Micro-Cutting
Principles 12 1.3.4 The Traditional Abrasive Polishing Technology for
Ultra-Smooth Surface 13 1.3.5 The Principles and Methods of Non-contact
Ultra-Smooth Polishing 15 1.3.6 The Non-contact Chemical Mechanical
Polishing (CMP) 17 1.3.7 The Magnetic Field Effect Auxiliary Processing
Technology 17 1.3.8 The Particle Flowing Machining Technology 18 1.4 The
Advanced Aspheric Optical Polishing Technology 19 1.4.1 The Classic
Polishing for Aspheric Optical Parts 19 1.4.2 The Modern CNC Polishing
Method of Aspheric Optical Parts 20 1.4.3 The Controllable Compliant Tool
(CTT) Manufacturing Technology for Aspheric Optical Components 22 1.5 The
CCT Based on Elasticity Theory 28 1.5.1 The Controlled Elastic Deformation
Pad Polishing--Stressed-Lap Polishing (SLP) 29 1.5.2 The Controlled Mirror
Body Elastic Deformation Polishing by Active Support 29 1.5.3 Bonnet
Polishing with Precession Process 30 1.6 The Key Basic Theory of CCT
Technology Based on the Multi-Energy Field 30 1.6.1 The Material Removal
Mechanism and Mathematical Model 31 1.6.2 The Multi-Parameter Control
Strategy 32 1.6.3 4D CNC Technology 34 1.6.4 The Evolution Theory and
Control Technology of the Errors 36 1.6.5 The Equipment and Technology of
the CCT 40 References 41 2 The Basic Theory of Aspheric Optical Lapping and
Polishing Technology 45 2.1 The Preston Equation of Optical-Mechanical
Polishing Technology and Its Application 45 2.1.1 The Preston Equation 45
2.1.2 The Application of Preston Equation in the Traditional Polishing 47
2.2 The Deterministic Processing Principle for Aspheric 49 2.3 The Molding
Theory of Aspheric Surface Processing 51 2.3.1 The Dual-Series Model for
the Aspheric Molding Process 51 2.3.2 The Influence of the Removal Function
Size on the Processing 53 2.3.3 The Influence of Removal Function
Disturbing 55 2.3.4 The Influence of the Positioning Errors 59 2.3.5 The
Influence of Discrete Interval 60 2.4 The Figuring Theory of Linear
Scanning Mode on Full-Aperture 63 2.4.1 The Iterative Algorithm Based on
Bayesian 64 2.4.2 The Pulse Iterative Method 72 2.4.3 The Truncated
Singular Value Decomposition 73 2.5 The Polar Scanning Mode of Surface
Figuring 76 2.5.1 The Removal Function with Approximate Rotation Symmetry
Property 76 2.5.2 The Removal Function without the Characteristics of
Rotation Symmetry 78 2.6 The Frequency Domain Analysis of Forming 83 2.6.1
The Characteristics of the Spectrum Under the General Forming Conditions 84
2.6.2 The Figuring Ability of the Rotary Symmetric Removal Function 86 2.7
Maximum Entropy Principle of Polishing 87 2.7.1 The Entropy Principle
Expression for Polishing 88 2.7.2 An Application Example of the Principle
of Maximum Entropy in the Fixed Eccentric Flat Polishing 89 2.7.3 The
Example of Processing Parameter Choice Based on Maximum Entropy Principle
for Dual-Rotor Pad 92 2.7.4 The Example of Inhibition Medium and High
Frequency Errors Based on the Entropy Increase Principle for the MRF 96
Appendix 2.A Two-Dimensional Hermite Series 102 Appendix 2.B
Two-Dimensional Fourier Series 104 Appendix 2.C The Dual-Series Model
Solution of Dwell Time 106 Appendix 2.D The Error Analysis of the
Dual-Series Model Solution for Dwell Time 108 References 109 3 CCOS
Technology Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1 Review of CCOS Technology
Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1.1 Progress of Small Tool CCOS
Technology 113 3.1.2 Key Problems of Small Tool CCOS Technology 115 3.2
Aspheric Optical Compound Machining Tool Optical Aspherical Mirror Process
Machine Tool 118 3.3 Modeling and Analysis of Removal Function 120 3.3.1
Characteristics of Ideal Removal Function 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Model 121
3.3.3 Experimental Model 122 3.3.4 Figuring Ability Analysis of Removal
Function 124 3.3.5 Modeling and Analysis of the Complex Shape Polishing
Pad's Removal Function 128 3.4 Calculation and Analysis of Dwell Time in
CCOS Technology 136 3.4.1 Pulse Iterative Method Based on Process Time 136
3.4.2 Influence of Convolution Effect on Residual Error 138 3.5 Removal
Function Modeling Under the Edge Effect 147 3.5.1 Pressure Distribution
When the Polishing Pad Out of Edge 148 3.5.2 Removal Function Modeling
Under Edge Effect 152 3.6 Cause and Modification Method of Optical Surface
Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.1 Cause and Evaluation of Optical
Surface Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.2 Full Aperture Uniform
Polishing Correction Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 159 3.6.3
Deterministic Local Modification Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error
173 References 176 4 Ion Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1 Outline of Ion
Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1.1 Application of Ion Beam Processing
Technology 179 4.1.2 The Basic Mechanism and Character for Optical
Machining by IBF 181 4.1.3 Development of IBF of Optical Mirror 183 4.2
Basic Principle of IBF for Optical Mirror 185 4.2.1 Description of Ion
Sputter Process 185 4.2.2 Material Removal Rate of IBF 188 4.3 Analysis of
Removal Function Model in IBF 199 4.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Removal
Function in IBF 199 4.3.2 Experiment Analysis of the Removal Function
Character in IBF 203 4.3.3 Experiment Modeling of Removal Function in IBF
208 4.4 IBF System Design and Analysis 210 4.4.1 System Set-Up 210 4.4.2
System Analysis 213 4.5 Micro-Scale Error Evolution During IBF 222 4.5.1
Surface Roughness Evolution 222 4.5.2 Microscopic Morphology Evolution 223
4.6 The Polishing Experiment of IBF 230 4.6.1 Flat Optical Mirror Polishing
Experiment 230 4.6.2 Curved Surface Figuring Experiment 232 References 235
5 Magnetorheological Figuring 237 5.1 Overview of Magnetorheological
Figuring 237 5.1.1 Applications of Magnetorheological Fluid 237 5.1.2
Development of Magnetic-Effect-Assisted Polishing Techniques for Optics 239
5.1.3 Development of Deterministic Magnetorheological Figuring 240 5.2
Mechanism and Mathematical Model of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.1
Mechanism of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.2 Theoretical Calculation of Load
on Single Abrasive and Indentation Depth 245 5.2.3 Fluid Dynamics Analysis
and Calculation in Polishing 247 5.3 MRF Machine Tools 257 5.3.1 Basic
Requirement on MRF Machine Structure 257 5.3.2 Machine Structure of MRF
Experimental Prototype 258 5.3.3 Design of Upside Down MRF Polishing
Devices 259 5.3.4 MR Fluid Circulation and Control System 263 5.4 MR Fluid
and Its Performance 264 5.4.1 Current Situation of MR Fluid Research 264
5.4.2 Components of MR Fluid and Its Performance 265 5.4.3 Principles on
Choosing MR Fluid Elements 269 5.4.4 Preparation of MR Fluid 272 5.5
Optimization of MRF Processing Parameters 272 5.5.1 Orthogonal Experiments
on MRF Process Parameters 273 5.5.2 Grey Correlation Analysis 276 5.5.3
Parameter Optimization of Multiple Process Indexes 279 5.5.4 Comprehensive
Optimization of Machining Process 280 5.6 MRF Optical Surfacing Technique
and Machining Experiment 280 5.6.1 Algorithm of Dwell Time for Optical MRF
Surfacing 280 5.6.2 MRF Polishing Examples 284 5.7 Magnetorheological Jet
Polishing 294 5.7.1 Overview of Abrasive Jet Polishing 294 5.7.2 MJP
Experiment and Analysis 295 5.7.3 CFD Analysis on MJP Removal Mechanism 298
5.7.4 MJP Polishing Experiments 303 References 304 6 Evaluation of
Deterministic Optical Machining Errors 307 6.1 Introduction 307 6.2 Usual
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors 308 6.2.1 Evaluation
Parameters of Geometrical Accuracy in Optical Machining Process 308 6.2.2
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on PSD Character Curve
310 6.2.3 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on Scattering
Theory 311 6.2.4 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on
Statistical Optical Theory 311 6.3 Analysis on Distribution Characteristics
of Optical Machining Errors 312 6.3.1 Evaluation and Analysis on Machining
Errors of Any Direction on Optical Surface 312 6.3.2 Evaluation and
Analysis of Local Errors on Optical Surface 319 6.3.3 Influence of
Processing Method on Optical Machining Errors 323 6.4 Scattering Evaluation
of Optical Machining Errors 340 6.4.1 Binary Separation of Frequency Band
for Optical Machining Errors 341 6.4.2 Evaluation Based on Harvey-Shack
Scattering Theory 344 6.4.3 Influence of Optical Machining Errors on
Scattering Properties 348 6.5 Evaluation of Frequency Band Errors Based on
Optical Performance 353 6.5.1 Influence Characteristic of Different
Frequency Errors on Optical Performance 353 6.5.2 Requirement of Frequency
Band Errors in Different Optical Applications 356 6.5.3 Evaluation of
Phi200 mm Paraboloid Mirror Machined by IBF 365 References 370 7
Measurement Technology in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces
373 7.1 Introduction 373 7.1.1 Requirements of Large-Middle Optical
Surfaces 373 7.1.2 Overview of Measurement in Manufacturing of Large-Middle
Optical Surfaces 375 7.2 Principles of Coordinate Measurement Technology in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 376 7.3 Interferometric Null
Test in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 377 7.3.1 Basic
Principle of Interferometric Null Test 377 7.3.2 Null Test of Large-Middle
Planar and Spherical Surfaces 378 7.3.3 Null Test of Conic Surfaces Using
Conjugates 379 7.3.4 Null Test of Aspheric Surfaces Using Compensators 383
7.3.5 Null Test with Computer Generated Holograms 384 7.4 Non-Null Test in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 386 7.4.1 Shear
Interferometry 386 7.4.2 Interferometry with High Resolution CCD 386 7.4.3
Sub-Nyquist Interferometry 387 7.4.4 Long-Wavelength Interferometry 387
7.4.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 387 7.5 Phase Retrieval
Technology 388 7.6 Subsurface Quality Assessment 388 References 389 8
Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1 State
of the Art of the Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric
Surface 391 8.1.1 Status and Characteristics of Coordinate Measuring
Technology for Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1.2 State of the Art of
Optical Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology and Development Tendency
393 8.2 Large Aperture Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology 397 8.2.1
The Design of Coordinate Measuring System 397 8.2.2 The Measurement
Principle of Large Aspheric Coordinate Measuring 405 8.2.3 Analysis and
Evaluation of Optical Aspheric Form Error Based on Multiple Section Line
Measurement 408 8.2.4 Machining Case--Machining and Measuring of Ø500 mm
Aspheric 421 8.3 The Swing Arm Measurement of Large Aspheric 425 8.3.1 The
Analysis of Measuring Principle 425 8.3.2 The Structural Design of
Measuring System 430 8.3.3 The Accuracy Analysis and Modeling of the
Measuring System 431 8.3.4 The Optimization Algorithm for Swing Arm
Profilometry Measuring Aspheric Vertex Curvature Radius 438 8.3.5 The
Simulation of Measurement Algorithm and Measurement Experiments 442
References 446 9 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1 Introduction
449 9.1.1 Basic Principle of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1.2
Overview of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.2 Fundamentals of
Subaperture Stitching Algorithm 452 9.2.1 Mathematical Model of
Two-Subaperture Stitching 452 9.2.2 Model and Algorithm for Simultaneous
Stitching 453 9.3 Iterative Algorithm for Subaperture Stitching 454 9.3.1
Mathematical Model 455 9.3.2 Iterative Algorithm 460 9.3.3 Coarse-Fine
Stitching Strategy for Large Optical Surfaces 463 9.4 Method for
Subaperture Lattice Design 463 9.4.1 Rough Design of Lattice 464 9.4.2
Calculation of Best-Fit Spheres for Subapertures 467 9.4.3 Simulation and
Verification of Lattice Design 469 9.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.1 Mechanical Configurations of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.2 Kinematics of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer 474 9.6 Case
Study 477 9.6.1 Large Flats and Planar Wavefronts 477 9.6.2 Spherical
Surfaces 488 9.6.3 Aspheric Surfaces 491 9.7 Future Development of
Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 495 9.7.1 Non-null Subaperture
Stitching Test 496 9.7.2 Null Subaperture Stitching Test 496 9.7.3
Near-Null Subaperture Stitching Test 500 Appendix 9.A Derivation of the
Linearized Configuration Optimization Subproblem 503 Appendix 9.B
Block-Wise QR Decomposition Procedure for Linear LS Problem 506 References
507 10 Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 511
10.1 Introduction to Phase Retrieval Technology 511 10.1.1 Significance of
Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing 511 10.1.2 Application of Phase Retrieval
Method 512 10.1.3 Theory of Phase Retrieval Algorithm 513 10.2 Basic
Principle and Algorithm for Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.1
Principle of Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.2 Diffraction
Computation for Optical Field Propagation 517 10.2.3 Phase Retrieval
Algorithm for Surface Figure Testing 519 10.3 Phase Retrieval Testing of
Spherical Wavefronts 524 10.3.1 Measurement Setup 524 10.3.2 Measurement of
Large Diameter Spherical Surface 524 10.4 Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing
528 10.4.1 Principle of Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing 529 10.4.2 Design
of Subpixel Intensity Constraint Function 531 10.4.3 Subpixel Phase
Retrieval Testing Experiments 533 10.5 Aspheric Phase Retrieval 535 10.5.1
Aspheric Departure 535 10.5.2 Characteristic of Aspheric Defocused Field
536 10.5.3 Measurement Plan for Aspheric Phase Retrieval 539 10.5.4
Aspheric Phase Retrieval Algorithm Design 541 10.5.5 Testing of a 170 mm
Aperture Parabolic Surface 543 10.5.6 Phase Retrieval Testing of Aspheres
Using Paraxial Conjugates 547 10.6 High Dynamic Range Phase Retrieval 550
10.6.1 High Dynamic Range Algorithm 550 10.6.2 Parametric Conjugate
Gradient Method 552 10.6.3 Testing of Roughly Polished Surfaces 554 10.7
Phase Retrieval Testing of Off-Axis Aspheric 555 10.7.1 Phase Retrieval
Principle for Off-Axis Aspheric 557 10.7.2 Testing of an Off-Axis
Elliptical Surface 564 References 569 11 Subsurface Damage of Optical
Components in Manufacturing Processes 573 11.1 Compendium of Subsurface
Damage 573 11.1.1 Concept of Subsurface Damage 573 11.1.2 Influence of
Subsurface Damage on the Service Performance of Optical Elements 574 11.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage 575 11.2.1 Production Mechanism
of Subsurface Damage Induced in Grinding and Lapping Processes 575 11.2.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage Induced in Polishing Process 577
11.3 Measurement Techniques of Subsurface Damage 578 11.3.1 Destructive
Measuring Methods 578 11.3.2 Non-destructive Measuring Methods 586 11.4
Relationship between Subsurface Damage and Surface Roughness of Optical
Materials in Grinding and Lapping Processes 588 11.4.1 Measurement Ratio of
Subsurface Damage Depth to Surface Roughness 589 11.4.2 Theoretical
Analysis with Indentation Fracture Mechanics 591 11.5 Influence of
Machining Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 594 11.5.1 Influence of
Grinding Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 595 11.5.2 Influence of
Lapping Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 597 11.6 Polishing Subsurface
Damage and Its Elimination Process 608 11.6.1 Characteristics and
Evaluation of Polishing Subsurface Damage 609 11.6.2 Improvement of Laser
Induced Damage Threshold through the Elimination of Subsurface Damage 611
References 615 Index 617
Optical Polishing Technology 1 1.1 Advantages and Application of Aspheric
Optics 1 1.1.1 Advantages of Optical Aspherics 1 1.1.2 The Application of
Aspheric Optical Components in Military Equipment 2 1.1.3 The Aspheric
Optical Components in the Civilian Equipment 2 1.2 The Characteristics of
Manufacturing Aspheric Mirror 3 1.2.1 Requirements of Modern Optical System
on Manufacturing Aspheric Parts 3 1.2.2 The Processing Analysis of Aspheric
Optical Parts 7 1.3 The Manufacturing Technology for Ultra-Smooth Surface 9
1.3.1 Super-Smooth Surface and Its Applications 9 1.3.2 Manufacturing
Technology Overview of Super-Smooth Surface 11 1.3.3 Manufacturing
Technology of Ultra-Smooth Surface Based on the Mechanical Micro-Cutting
Principles 12 1.3.4 The Traditional Abrasive Polishing Technology for
Ultra-Smooth Surface 13 1.3.5 The Principles and Methods of Non-contact
Ultra-Smooth Polishing 15 1.3.6 The Non-contact Chemical Mechanical
Polishing (CMP) 17 1.3.7 The Magnetic Field Effect Auxiliary Processing
Technology 17 1.3.8 The Particle Flowing Machining Technology 18 1.4 The
Advanced Aspheric Optical Polishing Technology 19 1.4.1 The Classic
Polishing for Aspheric Optical Parts 19 1.4.2 The Modern CNC Polishing
Method of Aspheric Optical Parts 20 1.4.3 The Controllable Compliant Tool
(CTT) Manufacturing Technology for Aspheric Optical Components 22 1.5 The
CCT Based on Elasticity Theory 28 1.5.1 The Controlled Elastic Deformation
Pad Polishing--Stressed-Lap Polishing (SLP) 29 1.5.2 The Controlled Mirror
Body Elastic Deformation Polishing by Active Support 29 1.5.3 Bonnet
Polishing with Precession Process 30 1.6 The Key Basic Theory of CCT
Technology Based on the Multi-Energy Field 30 1.6.1 The Material Removal
Mechanism and Mathematical Model 31 1.6.2 The Multi-Parameter Control
Strategy 32 1.6.3 4D CNC Technology 34 1.6.4 The Evolution Theory and
Control Technology of the Errors 36 1.6.5 The Equipment and Technology of
the CCT 40 References 41 2 The Basic Theory of Aspheric Optical Lapping and
Polishing Technology 45 2.1 The Preston Equation of Optical-Mechanical
Polishing Technology and Its Application 45 2.1.1 The Preston Equation 45
2.1.2 The Application of Preston Equation in the Traditional Polishing 47
2.2 The Deterministic Processing Principle for Aspheric 49 2.3 The Molding
Theory of Aspheric Surface Processing 51 2.3.1 The Dual-Series Model for
the Aspheric Molding Process 51 2.3.2 The Influence of the Removal Function
Size on the Processing 53 2.3.3 The Influence of Removal Function
Disturbing 55 2.3.4 The Influence of the Positioning Errors 59 2.3.5 The
Influence of Discrete Interval 60 2.4 The Figuring Theory of Linear
Scanning Mode on Full-Aperture 63 2.4.1 The Iterative Algorithm Based on
Bayesian 64 2.4.2 The Pulse Iterative Method 72 2.4.3 The Truncated
Singular Value Decomposition 73 2.5 The Polar Scanning Mode of Surface
Figuring 76 2.5.1 The Removal Function with Approximate Rotation Symmetry
Property 76 2.5.2 The Removal Function without the Characteristics of
Rotation Symmetry 78 2.6 The Frequency Domain Analysis of Forming 83 2.6.1
The Characteristics of the Spectrum Under the General Forming Conditions 84
2.6.2 The Figuring Ability of the Rotary Symmetric Removal Function 86 2.7
Maximum Entropy Principle of Polishing 87 2.7.1 The Entropy Principle
Expression for Polishing 88 2.7.2 An Application Example of the Principle
of Maximum Entropy in the Fixed Eccentric Flat Polishing 89 2.7.3 The
Example of Processing Parameter Choice Based on Maximum Entropy Principle
for Dual-Rotor Pad 92 2.7.4 The Example of Inhibition Medium and High
Frequency Errors Based on the Entropy Increase Principle for the MRF 96
Appendix 2.A Two-Dimensional Hermite Series 102 Appendix 2.B
Two-Dimensional Fourier Series 104 Appendix 2.C The Dual-Series Model
Solution of Dwell Time 106 Appendix 2.D The Error Analysis of the
Dual-Series Model Solution for Dwell Time 108 References 109 3 CCOS
Technology Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1 Review of CCOS Technology
Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1.1 Progress of Small Tool CCOS
Technology 113 3.1.2 Key Problems of Small Tool CCOS Technology 115 3.2
Aspheric Optical Compound Machining Tool Optical Aspherical Mirror Process
Machine Tool 118 3.3 Modeling and Analysis of Removal Function 120 3.3.1
Characteristics of Ideal Removal Function 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Model 121
3.3.3 Experimental Model 122 3.3.4 Figuring Ability Analysis of Removal
Function 124 3.3.5 Modeling and Analysis of the Complex Shape Polishing
Pad's Removal Function 128 3.4 Calculation and Analysis of Dwell Time in
CCOS Technology 136 3.4.1 Pulse Iterative Method Based on Process Time 136
3.4.2 Influence of Convolution Effect on Residual Error 138 3.5 Removal
Function Modeling Under the Edge Effect 147 3.5.1 Pressure Distribution
When the Polishing Pad Out of Edge 148 3.5.2 Removal Function Modeling
Under Edge Effect 152 3.6 Cause and Modification Method of Optical Surface
Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.1 Cause and Evaluation of Optical
Surface Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.2 Full Aperture Uniform
Polishing Correction Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 159 3.6.3
Deterministic Local Modification Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error
173 References 176 4 Ion Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1 Outline of Ion
Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1.1 Application of Ion Beam Processing
Technology 179 4.1.2 The Basic Mechanism and Character for Optical
Machining by IBF 181 4.1.3 Development of IBF of Optical Mirror 183 4.2
Basic Principle of IBF for Optical Mirror 185 4.2.1 Description of Ion
Sputter Process 185 4.2.2 Material Removal Rate of IBF 188 4.3 Analysis of
Removal Function Model in IBF 199 4.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Removal
Function in IBF 199 4.3.2 Experiment Analysis of the Removal Function
Character in IBF 203 4.3.3 Experiment Modeling of Removal Function in IBF
208 4.4 IBF System Design and Analysis 210 4.4.1 System Set-Up 210 4.4.2
System Analysis 213 4.5 Micro-Scale Error Evolution During IBF 222 4.5.1
Surface Roughness Evolution 222 4.5.2 Microscopic Morphology Evolution 223
4.6 The Polishing Experiment of IBF 230 4.6.1 Flat Optical Mirror Polishing
Experiment 230 4.6.2 Curved Surface Figuring Experiment 232 References 235
5 Magnetorheological Figuring 237 5.1 Overview of Magnetorheological
Figuring 237 5.1.1 Applications of Magnetorheological Fluid 237 5.1.2
Development of Magnetic-Effect-Assisted Polishing Techniques for Optics 239
5.1.3 Development of Deterministic Magnetorheological Figuring 240 5.2
Mechanism and Mathematical Model of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.1
Mechanism of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.2 Theoretical Calculation of Load
on Single Abrasive and Indentation Depth 245 5.2.3 Fluid Dynamics Analysis
and Calculation in Polishing 247 5.3 MRF Machine Tools 257 5.3.1 Basic
Requirement on MRF Machine Structure 257 5.3.2 Machine Structure of MRF
Experimental Prototype 258 5.3.3 Design of Upside Down MRF Polishing
Devices 259 5.3.4 MR Fluid Circulation and Control System 263 5.4 MR Fluid
and Its Performance 264 5.4.1 Current Situation of MR Fluid Research 264
5.4.2 Components of MR Fluid and Its Performance 265 5.4.3 Principles on
Choosing MR Fluid Elements 269 5.4.4 Preparation of MR Fluid 272 5.5
Optimization of MRF Processing Parameters 272 5.5.1 Orthogonal Experiments
on MRF Process Parameters 273 5.5.2 Grey Correlation Analysis 276 5.5.3
Parameter Optimization of Multiple Process Indexes 279 5.5.4 Comprehensive
Optimization of Machining Process 280 5.6 MRF Optical Surfacing Technique
and Machining Experiment 280 5.6.1 Algorithm of Dwell Time for Optical MRF
Surfacing 280 5.6.2 MRF Polishing Examples 284 5.7 Magnetorheological Jet
Polishing 294 5.7.1 Overview of Abrasive Jet Polishing 294 5.7.2 MJP
Experiment and Analysis 295 5.7.3 CFD Analysis on MJP Removal Mechanism 298
5.7.4 MJP Polishing Experiments 303 References 304 6 Evaluation of
Deterministic Optical Machining Errors 307 6.1 Introduction 307 6.2 Usual
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors 308 6.2.1 Evaluation
Parameters of Geometrical Accuracy in Optical Machining Process 308 6.2.2
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on PSD Character Curve
310 6.2.3 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on Scattering
Theory 311 6.2.4 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on
Statistical Optical Theory 311 6.3 Analysis on Distribution Characteristics
of Optical Machining Errors 312 6.3.1 Evaluation and Analysis on Machining
Errors of Any Direction on Optical Surface 312 6.3.2 Evaluation and
Analysis of Local Errors on Optical Surface 319 6.3.3 Influence of
Processing Method on Optical Machining Errors 323 6.4 Scattering Evaluation
of Optical Machining Errors 340 6.4.1 Binary Separation of Frequency Band
for Optical Machining Errors 341 6.4.2 Evaluation Based on Harvey-Shack
Scattering Theory 344 6.4.3 Influence of Optical Machining Errors on
Scattering Properties 348 6.5 Evaluation of Frequency Band Errors Based on
Optical Performance 353 6.5.1 Influence Characteristic of Different
Frequency Errors on Optical Performance 353 6.5.2 Requirement of Frequency
Band Errors in Different Optical Applications 356 6.5.3 Evaluation of
Phi200 mm Paraboloid Mirror Machined by IBF 365 References 370 7
Measurement Technology in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces
373 7.1 Introduction 373 7.1.1 Requirements of Large-Middle Optical
Surfaces 373 7.1.2 Overview of Measurement in Manufacturing of Large-Middle
Optical Surfaces 375 7.2 Principles of Coordinate Measurement Technology in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 376 7.3 Interferometric Null
Test in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 377 7.3.1 Basic
Principle of Interferometric Null Test 377 7.3.2 Null Test of Large-Middle
Planar and Spherical Surfaces 378 7.3.3 Null Test of Conic Surfaces Using
Conjugates 379 7.3.4 Null Test of Aspheric Surfaces Using Compensators 383
7.3.5 Null Test with Computer Generated Holograms 384 7.4 Non-Null Test in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 386 7.4.1 Shear
Interferometry 386 7.4.2 Interferometry with High Resolution CCD 386 7.4.3
Sub-Nyquist Interferometry 387 7.4.4 Long-Wavelength Interferometry 387
7.4.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 387 7.5 Phase Retrieval
Technology 388 7.6 Subsurface Quality Assessment 388 References 389 8
Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1 State
of the Art of the Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric
Surface 391 8.1.1 Status and Characteristics of Coordinate Measuring
Technology for Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1.2 State of the Art of
Optical Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology and Development Tendency
393 8.2 Large Aperture Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology 397 8.2.1
The Design of Coordinate Measuring System 397 8.2.2 The Measurement
Principle of Large Aspheric Coordinate Measuring 405 8.2.3 Analysis and
Evaluation of Optical Aspheric Form Error Based on Multiple Section Line
Measurement 408 8.2.4 Machining Case--Machining and Measuring of Ø500 mm
Aspheric 421 8.3 The Swing Arm Measurement of Large Aspheric 425 8.3.1 The
Analysis of Measuring Principle 425 8.3.2 The Structural Design of
Measuring System 430 8.3.3 The Accuracy Analysis and Modeling of the
Measuring System 431 8.3.4 The Optimization Algorithm for Swing Arm
Profilometry Measuring Aspheric Vertex Curvature Radius 438 8.3.5 The
Simulation of Measurement Algorithm and Measurement Experiments 442
References 446 9 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1 Introduction
449 9.1.1 Basic Principle of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1.2
Overview of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.2 Fundamentals of
Subaperture Stitching Algorithm 452 9.2.1 Mathematical Model of
Two-Subaperture Stitching 452 9.2.2 Model and Algorithm for Simultaneous
Stitching 453 9.3 Iterative Algorithm for Subaperture Stitching 454 9.3.1
Mathematical Model 455 9.3.2 Iterative Algorithm 460 9.3.3 Coarse-Fine
Stitching Strategy for Large Optical Surfaces 463 9.4 Method for
Subaperture Lattice Design 463 9.4.1 Rough Design of Lattice 464 9.4.2
Calculation of Best-Fit Spheres for Subapertures 467 9.4.3 Simulation and
Verification of Lattice Design 469 9.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.1 Mechanical Configurations of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.2 Kinematics of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer 474 9.6 Case
Study 477 9.6.1 Large Flats and Planar Wavefronts 477 9.6.2 Spherical
Surfaces 488 9.6.3 Aspheric Surfaces 491 9.7 Future Development of
Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 495 9.7.1 Non-null Subaperture
Stitching Test 496 9.7.2 Null Subaperture Stitching Test 496 9.7.3
Near-Null Subaperture Stitching Test 500 Appendix 9.A Derivation of the
Linearized Configuration Optimization Subproblem 503 Appendix 9.B
Block-Wise QR Decomposition Procedure for Linear LS Problem 506 References
507 10 Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 511
10.1 Introduction to Phase Retrieval Technology 511 10.1.1 Significance of
Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing 511 10.1.2 Application of Phase Retrieval
Method 512 10.1.3 Theory of Phase Retrieval Algorithm 513 10.2 Basic
Principle and Algorithm for Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.1
Principle of Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.2 Diffraction
Computation for Optical Field Propagation 517 10.2.3 Phase Retrieval
Algorithm for Surface Figure Testing 519 10.3 Phase Retrieval Testing of
Spherical Wavefronts 524 10.3.1 Measurement Setup 524 10.3.2 Measurement of
Large Diameter Spherical Surface 524 10.4 Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing
528 10.4.1 Principle of Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing 529 10.4.2 Design
of Subpixel Intensity Constraint Function 531 10.4.3 Subpixel Phase
Retrieval Testing Experiments 533 10.5 Aspheric Phase Retrieval 535 10.5.1
Aspheric Departure 535 10.5.2 Characteristic of Aspheric Defocused Field
536 10.5.3 Measurement Plan for Aspheric Phase Retrieval 539 10.5.4
Aspheric Phase Retrieval Algorithm Design 541 10.5.5 Testing of a 170 mm
Aperture Parabolic Surface 543 10.5.6 Phase Retrieval Testing of Aspheres
Using Paraxial Conjugates 547 10.6 High Dynamic Range Phase Retrieval 550
10.6.1 High Dynamic Range Algorithm 550 10.6.2 Parametric Conjugate
Gradient Method 552 10.6.3 Testing of Roughly Polished Surfaces 554 10.7
Phase Retrieval Testing of Off-Axis Aspheric 555 10.7.1 Phase Retrieval
Principle for Off-Axis Aspheric 557 10.7.2 Testing of an Off-Axis
Elliptical Surface 564 References 569 11 Subsurface Damage of Optical
Components in Manufacturing Processes 573 11.1 Compendium of Subsurface
Damage 573 11.1.1 Concept of Subsurface Damage 573 11.1.2 Influence of
Subsurface Damage on the Service Performance of Optical Elements 574 11.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage 575 11.2.1 Production Mechanism
of Subsurface Damage Induced in Grinding and Lapping Processes 575 11.2.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage Induced in Polishing Process 577
11.3 Measurement Techniques of Subsurface Damage 578 11.3.1 Destructive
Measuring Methods 578 11.3.2 Non-destructive Measuring Methods 586 11.4
Relationship between Subsurface Damage and Surface Roughness of Optical
Materials in Grinding and Lapping Processes 588 11.4.1 Measurement Ratio of
Subsurface Damage Depth to Surface Roughness 589 11.4.2 Theoretical
Analysis with Indentation Fracture Mechanics 591 11.5 Influence of
Machining Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 594 11.5.1 Influence of
Grinding Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 595 11.5.2 Influence of
Lapping Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 597 11.6 Polishing Subsurface
Damage and Its Elimination Process 608 11.6.1 Characteristics and
Evaluation of Polishing Subsurface Damage 609 11.6.2 Improvement of Laser
Induced Damage Threshold through the Elimination of Subsurface Damage 611
References 615 Index 617
About the Author xiii Foreword xv Preface xvii 1 Foundation of the Aspheric
Optical Polishing Technology 1 1.1 Advantages and Application of Aspheric
Optics 1 1.1.1 Advantages of Optical Aspherics 1 1.1.2 The Application of
Aspheric Optical Components in Military Equipment 2 1.1.3 The Aspheric
Optical Components in the Civilian Equipment 2 1.2 The Characteristics of
Manufacturing Aspheric Mirror 3 1.2.1 Requirements of Modern Optical System
on Manufacturing Aspheric Parts 3 1.2.2 The Processing Analysis of Aspheric
Optical Parts 7 1.3 The Manufacturing Technology for Ultra-Smooth Surface 9
1.3.1 Super-Smooth Surface and Its Applications 9 1.3.2 Manufacturing
Technology Overview of Super-Smooth Surface 11 1.3.3 Manufacturing
Technology of Ultra-Smooth Surface Based on the Mechanical Micro-Cutting
Principles 12 1.3.4 The Traditional Abrasive Polishing Technology for
Ultra-Smooth Surface 13 1.3.5 The Principles and Methods of Non-contact
Ultra-Smooth Polishing 15 1.3.6 The Non-contact Chemical Mechanical
Polishing (CMP) 17 1.3.7 The Magnetic Field Effect Auxiliary Processing
Technology 17 1.3.8 The Particle Flowing Machining Technology 18 1.4 The
Advanced Aspheric Optical Polishing Technology 19 1.4.1 The Classic
Polishing for Aspheric Optical Parts 19 1.4.2 The Modern CNC Polishing
Method of Aspheric Optical Parts 20 1.4.3 The Controllable Compliant Tool
(CTT) Manufacturing Technology for Aspheric Optical Components 22 1.5 The
CCT Based on Elasticity Theory 28 1.5.1 The Controlled Elastic Deformation
Pad Polishing--Stressed-Lap Polishing (SLP) 29 1.5.2 The Controlled Mirror
Body Elastic Deformation Polishing by Active Support 29 1.5.3 Bonnet
Polishing with Precession Process 30 1.6 The Key Basic Theory of CCT
Technology Based on the Multi-Energy Field 30 1.6.1 The Material Removal
Mechanism and Mathematical Model 31 1.6.2 The Multi-Parameter Control
Strategy 32 1.6.3 4D CNC Technology 34 1.6.4 The Evolution Theory and
Control Technology of the Errors 36 1.6.5 The Equipment and Technology of
the CCT 40 References 41 2 The Basic Theory of Aspheric Optical Lapping and
Polishing Technology 45 2.1 The Preston Equation of Optical-Mechanical
Polishing Technology and Its Application 45 2.1.1 The Preston Equation 45
2.1.2 The Application of Preston Equation in the Traditional Polishing 47
2.2 The Deterministic Processing Principle for Aspheric 49 2.3 The Molding
Theory of Aspheric Surface Processing 51 2.3.1 The Dual-Series Model for
the Aspheric Molding Process 51 2.3.2 The Influence of the Removal Function
Size on the Processing 53 2.3.3 The Influence of Removal Function
Disturbing 55 2.3.4 The Influence of the Positioning Errors 59 2.3.5 The
Influence of Discrete Interval 60 2.4 The Figuring Theory of Linear
Scanning Mode on Full-Aperture 63 2.4.1 The Iterative Algorithm Based on
Bayesian 64 2.4.2 The Pulse Iterative Method 72 2.4.3 The Truncated
Singular Value Decomposition 73 2.5 The Polar Scanning Mode of Surface
Figuring 76 2.5.1 The Removal Function with Approximate Rotation Symmetry
Property 76 2.5.2 The Removal Function without the Characteristics of
Rotation Symmetry 78 2.6 The Frequency Domain Analysis of Forming 83 2.6.1
The Characteristics of the Spectrum Under the General Forming Conditions 84
2.6.2 The Figuring Ability of the Rotary Symmetric Removal Function 86 2.7
Maximum Entropy Principle of Polishing 87 2.7.1 The Entropy Principle
Expression for Polishing 88 2.7.2 An Application Example of the Principle
of Maximum Entropy in the Fixed Eccentric Flat Polishing 89 2.7.3 The
Example of Processing Parameter Choice Based on Maximum Entropy Principle
for Dual-Rotor Pad 92 2.7.4 The Example of Inhibition Medium and High
Frequency Errors Based on the Entropy Increase Principle for the MRF 96
Appendix 2.A Two-Dimensional Hermite Series 102 Appendix 2.B
Two-Dimensional Fourier Series 104 Appendix 2.C The Dual-Series Model
Solution of Dwell Time 106 Appendix 2.D The Error Analysis of the
Dual-Series Model Solution for Dwell Time 108 References 109 3 CCOS
Technology Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1 Review of CCOS Technology
Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1.1 Progress of Small Tool CCOS
Technology 113 3.1.2 Key Problems of Small Tool CCOS Technology 115 3.2
Aspheric Optical Compound Machining Tool Optical Aspherical Mirror Process
Machine Tool 118 3.3 Modeling and Analysis of Removal Function 120 3.3.1
Characteristics of Ideal Removal Function 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Model 121
3.3.3 Experimental Model 122 3.3.4 Figuring Ability Analysis of Removal
Function 124 3.3.5 Modeling and Analysis of the Complex Shape Polishing
Pad's Removal Function 128 3.4 Calculation and Analysis of Dwell Time in
CCOS Technology 136 3.4.1 Pulse Iterative Method Based on Process Time 136
3.4.2 Influence of Convolution Effect on Residual Error 138 3.5 Removal
Function Modeling Under the Edge Effect 147 3.5.1 Pressure Distribution
When the Polishing Pad Out of Edge 148 3.5.2 Removal Function Modeling
Under Edge Effect 152 3.6 Cause and Modification Method of Optical Surface
Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.1 Cause and Evaluation of Optical
Surface Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.2 Full Aperture Uniform
Polishing Correction Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 159 3.6.3
Deterministic Local Modification Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error
173 References 176 4 Ion Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1 Outline of Ion
Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1.1 Application of Ion Beam Processing
Technology 179 4.1.2 The Basic Mechanism and Character for Optical
Machining by IBF 181 4.1.3 Development of IBF of Optical Mirror 183 4.2
Basic Principle of IBF for Optical Mirror 185 4.2.1 Description of Ion
Sputter Process 185 4.2.2 Material Removal Rate of IBF 188 4.3 Analysis of
Removal Function Model in IBF 199 4.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Removal
Function in IBF 199 4.3.2 Experiment Analysis of the Removal Function
Character in IBF 203 4.3.3 Experiment Modeling of Removal Function in IBF
208 4.4 IBF System Design and Analysis 210 4.4.1 System Set-Up 210 4.4.2
System Analysis 213 4.5 Micro-Scale Error Evolution During IBF 222 4.5.1
Surface Roughness Evolution 222 4.5.2 Microscopic Morphology Evolution 223
4.6 The Polishing Experiment of IBF 230 4.6.1 Flat Optical Mirror Polishing
Experiment 230 4.6.2 Curved Surface Figuring Experiment 232 References 235
5 Magnetorheological Figuring 237 5.1 Overview of Magnetorheological
Figuring 237 5.1.1 Applications of Magnetorheological Fluid 237 5.1.2
Development of Magnetic-Effect-Assisted Polishing Techniques for Optics 239
5.1.3 Development of Deterministic Magnetorheological Figuring 240 5.2
Mechanism and Mathematical Model of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.1
Mechanism of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.2 Theoretical Calculation of Load
on Single Abrasive and Indentation Depth 245 5.2.3 Fluid Dynamics Analysis
and Calculation in Polishing 247 5.3 MRF Machine Tools 257 5.3.1 Basic
Requirement on MRF Machine Structure 257 5.3.2 Machine Structure of MRF
Experimental Prototype 258 5.3.3 Design of Upside Down MRF Polishing
Devices 259 5.3.4 MR Fluid Circulation and Control System 263 5.4 MR Fluid
and Its Performance 264 5.4.1 Current Situation of MR Fluid Research 264
5.4.2 Components of MR Fluid and Its Performance 265 5.4.3 Principles on
Choosing MR Fluid Elements 269 5.4.4 Preparation of MR Fluid 272 5.5
Optimization of MRF Processing Parameters 272 5.5.1 Orthogonal Experiments
on MRF Process Parameters 273 5.5.2 Grey Correlation Analysis 276 5.5.3
Parameter Optimization of Multiple Process Indexes 279 5.5.4 Comprehensive
Optimization of Machining Process 280 5.6 MRF Optical Surfacing Technique
and Machining Experiment 280 5.6.1 Algorithm of Dwell Time for Optical MRF
Surfacing 280 5.6.2 MRF Polishing Examples 284 5.7 Magnetorheological Jet
Polishing 294 5.7.1 Overview of Abrasive Jet Polishing 294 5.7.2 MJP
Experiment and Analysis 295 5.7.3 CFD Analysis on MJP Removal Mechanism 298
5.7.4 MJP Polishing Experiments 303 References 304 6 Evaluation of
Deterministic Optical Machining Errors 307 6.1 Introduction 307 6.2 Usual
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors 308 6.2.1 Evaluation
Parameters of Geometrical Accuracy in Optical Machining Process 308 6.2.2
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on PSD Character Curve
310 6.2.3 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on Scattering
Theory 311 6.2.4 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on
Statistical Optical Theory 311 6.3 Analysis on Distribution Characteristics
of Optical Machining Errors 312 6.3.1 Evaluation and Analysis on Machining
Errors of Any Direction on Optical Surface 312 6.3.2 Evaluation and
Analysis of Local Errors on Optical Surface 319 6.3.3 Influence of
Processing Method on Optical Machining Errors 323 6.4 Scattering Evaluation
of Optical Machining Errors 340 6.4.1 Binary Separation of Frequency Band
for Optical Machining Errors 341 6.4.2 Evaluation Based on Harvey-Shack
Scattering Theory 344 6.4.3 Influence of Optical Machining Errors on
Scattering Properties 348 6.5 Evaluation of Frequency Band Errors Based on
Optical Performance 353 6.5.1 Influence Characteristic of Different
Frequency Errors on Optical Performance 353 6.5.2 Requirement of Frequency
Band Errors in Different Optical Applications 356 6.5.3 Evaluation of
Phi200 mm Paraboloid Mirror Machined by IBF 365 References 370 7
Measurement Technology in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces
373 7.1 Introduction 373 7.1.1 Requirements of Large-Middle Optical
Surfaces 373 7.1.2 Overview of Measurement in Manufacturing of Large-Middle
Optical Surfaces 375 7.2 Principles of Coordinate Measurement Technology in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 376 7.3 Interferometric Null
Test in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 377 7.3.1 Basic
Principle of Interferometric Null Test 377 7.3.2 Null Test of Large-Middle
Planar and Spherical Surfaces 378 7.3.3 Null Test of Conic Surfaces Using
Conjugates 379 7.3.4 Null Test of Aspheric Surfaces Using Compensators 383
7.3.5 Null Test with Computer Generated Holograms 384 7.4 Non-Null Test in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 386 7.4.1 Shear
Interferometry 386 7.4.2 Interferometry with High Resolution CCD 386 7.4.3
Sub-Nyquist Interferometry 387 7.4.4 Long-Wavelength Interferometry 387
7.4.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 387 7.5 Phase Retrieval
Technology 388 7.6 Subsurface Quality Assessment 388 References 389 8
Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1 State
of the Art of the Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric
Surface 391 8.1.1 Status and Characteristics of Coordinate Measuring
Technology for Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1.2 State of the Art of
Optical Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology and Development Tendency
393 8.2 Large Aperture Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology 397 8.2.1
The Design of Coordinate Measuring System 397 8.2.2 The Measurement
Principle of Large Aspheric Coordinate Measuring 405 8.2.3 Analysis and
Evaluation of Optical Aspheric Form Error Based on Multiple Section Line
Measurement 408 8.2.4 Machining Case--Machining and Measuring of Ø500 mm
Aspheric 421 8.3 The Swing Arm Measurement of Large Aspheric 425 8.3.1 The
Analysis of Measuring Principle 425 8.3.2 The Structural Design of
Measuring System 430 8.3.3 The Accuracy Analysis and Modeling of the
Measuring System 431 8.3.4 The Optimization Algorithm for Swing Arm
Profilometry Measuring Aspheric Vertex Curvature Radius 438 8.3.5 The
Simulation of Measurement Algorithm and Measurement Experiments 442
References 446 9 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1 Introduction
449 9.1.1 Basic Principle of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1.2
Overview of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.2 Fundamentals of
Subaperture Stitching Algorithm 452 9.2.1 Mathematical Model of
Two-Subaperture Stitching 452 9.2.2 Model and Algorithm for Simultaneous
Stitching 453 9.3 Iterative Algorithm for Subaperture Stitching 454 9.3.1
Mathematical Model 455 9.3.2 Iterative Algorithm 460 9.3.3 Coarse-Fine
Stitching Strategy for Large Optical Surfaces 463 9.4 Method for
Subaperture Lattice Design 463 9.4.1 Rough Design of Lattice 464 9.4.2
Calculation of Best-Fit Spheres for Subapertures 467 9.4.3 Simulation and
Verification of Lattice Design 469 9.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.1 Mechanical Configurations of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.2 Kinematics of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer 474 9.6 Case
Study 477 9.6.1 Large Flats and Planar Wavefronts 477 9.6.2 Spherical
Surfaces 488 9.6.3 Aspheric Surfaces 491 9.7 Future Development of
Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 495 9.7.1 Non-null Subaperture
Stitching Test 496 9.7.2 Null Subaperture Stitching Test 496 9.7.3
Near-Null Subaperture Stitching Test 500 Appendix 9.A Derivation of the
Linearized Configuration Optimization Subproblem 503 Appendix 9.B
Block-Wise QR Decomposition Procedure for Linear LS Problem 506 References
507 10 Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 511
10.1 Introduction to Phase Retrieval Technology 511 10.1.1 Significance of
Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing 511 10.1.2 Application of Phase Retrieval
Method 512 10.1.3 Theory of Phase Retrieval Algorithm 513 10.2 Basic
Principle and Algorithm for Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.1
Principle of Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.2 Diffraction
Computation for Optical Field Propagation 517 10.2.3 Phase Retrieval
Algorithm for Surface Figure Testing 519 10.3 Phase Retrieval Testing of
Spherical Wavefronts 524 10.3.1 Measurement Setup 524 10.3.2 Measurement of
Large Diameter Spherical Surface 524 10.4 Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing
528 10.4.1 Principle of Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing 529 10.4.2 Design
of Subpixel Intensity Constraint Function 531 10.4.3 Subpixel Phase
Retrieval Testing Experiments 533 10.5 Aspheric Phase Retrieval 535 10.5.1
Aspheric Departure 535 10.5.2 Characteristic of Aspheric Defocused Field
536 10.5.3 Measurement Plan for Aspheric Phase Retrieval 539 10.5.4
Aspheric Phase Retrieval Algorithm Design 541 10.5.5 Testing of a 170 mm
Aperture Parabolic Surface 543 10.5.6 Phase Retrieval Testing of Aspheres
Using Paraxial Conjugates 547 10.6 High Dynamic Range Phase Retrieval 550
10.6.1 High Dynamic Range Algorithm 550 10.6.2 Parametric Conjugate
Gradient Method 552 10.6.3 Testing of Roughly Polished Surfaces 554 10.7
Phase Retrieval Testing of Off-Axis Aspheric 555 10.7.1 Phase Retrieval
Principle for Off-Axis Aspheric 557 10.7.2 Testing of an Off-Axis
Elliptical Surface 564 References 569 11 Subsurface Damage of Optical
Components in Manufacturing Processes 573 11.1 Compendium of Subsurface
Damage 573 11.1.1 Concept of Subsurface Damage 573 11.1.2 Influence of
Subsurface Damage on the Service Performance of Optical Elements 574 11.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage 575 11.2.1 Production Mechanism
of Subsurface Damage Induced in Grinding and Lapping Processes 575 11.2.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage Induced in Polishing Process 577
11.3 Measurement Techniques of Subsurface Damage 578 11.3.1 Destructive
Measuring Methods 578 11.3.2 Non-destructive Measuring Methods 586 11.4
Relationship between Subsurface Damage and Surface Roughness of Optical
Materials in Grinding and Lapping Processes 588 11.4.1 Measurement Ratio of
Subsurface Damage Depth to Surface Roughness 589 11.4.2 Theoretical
Analysis with Indentation Fracture Mechanics 591 11.5 Influence of
Machining Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 594 11.5.1 Influence of
Grinding Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 595 11.5.2 Influence of
Lapping Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 597 11.6 Polishing Subsurface
Damage and Its Elimination Process 608 11.6.1 Characteristics and
Evaluation of Polishing Subsurface Damage 609 11.6.2 Improvement of Laser
Induced Damage Threshold through the Elimination of Subsurface Damage 611
References 615 Index 617
Optical Polishing Technology 1 1.1 Advantages and Application of Aspheric
Optics 1 1.1.1 Advantages of Optical Aspherics 1 1.1.2 The Application of
Aspheric Optical Components in Military Equipment 2 1.1.3 The Aspheric
Optical Components in the Civilian Equipment 2 1.2 The Characteristics of
Manufacturing Aspheric Mirror 3 1.2.1 Requirements of Modern Optical System
on Manufacturing Aspheric Parts 3 1.2.2 The Processing Analysis of Aspheric
Optical Parts 7 1.3 The Manufacturing Technology for Ultra-Smooth Surface 9
1.3.1 Super-Smooth Surface and Its Applications 9 1.3.2 Manufacturing
Technology Overview of Super-Smooth Surface 11 1.3.3 Manufacturing
Technology of Ultra-Smooth Surface Based on the Mechanical Micro-Cutting
Principles 12 1.3.4 The Traditional Abrasive Polishing Technology for
Ultra-Smooth Surface 13 1.3.5 The Principles and Methods of Non-contact
Ultra-Smooth Polishing 15 1.3.6 The Non-contact Chemical Mechanical
Polishing (CMP) 17 1.3.7 The Magnetic Field Effect Auxiliary Processing
Technology 17 1.3.8 The Particle Flowing Machining Technology 18 1.4 The
Advanced Aspheric Optical Polishing Technology 19 1.4.1 The Classic
Polishing for Aspheric Optical Parts 19 1.4.2 The Modern CNC Polishing
Method of Aspheric Optical Parts 20 1.4.3 The Controllable Compliant Tool
(CTT) Manufacturing Technology for Aspheric Optical Components 22 1.5 The
CCT Based on Elasticity Theory 28 1.5.1 The Controlled Elastic Deformation
Pad Polishing--Stressed-Lap Polishing (SLP) 29 1.5.2 The Controlled Mirror
Body Elastic Deformation Polishing by Active Support 29 1.5.3 Bonnet
Polishing with Precession Process 30 1.6 The Key Basic Theory of CCT
Technology Based on the Multi-Energy Field 30 1.6.1 The Material Removal
Mechanism and Mathematical Model 31 1.6.2 The Multi-Parameter Control
Strategy 32 1.6.3 4D CNC Technology 34 1.6.4 The Evolution Theory and
Control Technology of the Errors 36 1.6.5 The Equipment and Technology of
the CCT 40 References 41 2 The Basic Theory of Aspheric Optical Lapping and
Polishing Technology 45 2.1 The Preston Equation of Optical-Mechanical
Polishing Technology and Its Application 45 2.1.1 The Preston Equation 45
2.1.2 The Application of Preston Equation in the Traditional Polishing 47
2.2 The Deterministic Processing Principle for Aspheric 49 2.3 The Molding
Theory of Aspheric Surface Processing 51 2.3.1 The Dual-Series Model for
the Aspheric Molding Process 51 2.3.2 The Influence of the Removal Function
Size on the Processing 53 2.3.3 The Influence of Removal Function
Disturbing 55 2.3.4 The Influence of the Positioning Errors 59 2.3.5 The
Influence of Discrete Interval 60 2.4 The Figuring Theory of Linear
Scanning Mode on Full-Aperture 63 2.4.1 The Iterative Algorithm Based on
Bayesian 64 2.4.2 The Pulse Iterative Method 72 2.4.3 The Truncated
Singular Value Decomposition 73 2.5 The Polar Scanning Mode of Surface
Figuring 76 2.5.1 The Removal Function with Approximate Rotation Symmetry
Property 76 2.5.2 The Removal Function without the Characteristics of
Rotation Symmetry 78 2.6 The Frequency Domain Analysis of Forming 83 2.6.1
The Characteristics of the Spectrum Under the General Forming Conditions 84
2.6.2 The Figuring Ability of the Rotary Symmetric Removal Function 86 2.7
Maximum Entropy Principle of Polishing 87 2.7.1 The Entropy Principle
Expression for Polishing 88 2.7.2 An Application Example of the Principle
of Maximum Entropy in the Fixed Eccentric Flat Polishing 89 2.7.3 The
Example of Processing Parameter Choice Based on Maximum Entropy Principle
for Dual-Rotor Pad 92 2.7.4 The Example of Inhibition Medium and High
Frequency Errors Based on the Entropy Increase Principle for the MRF 96
Appendix 2.A Two-Dimensional Hermite Series 102 Appendix 2.B
Two-Dimensional Fourier Series 104 Appendix 2.C The Dual-Series Model
Solution of Dwell Time 106 Appendix 2.D The Error Analysis of the
Dual-Series Model Solution for Dwell Time 108 References 109 3 CCOS
Technology Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1 Review of CCOS Technology
Based on Small Polishing Pad 113 3.1.1 Progress of Small Tool CCOS
Technology 113 3.1.2 Key Problems of Small Tool CCOS Technology 115 3.2
Aspheric Optical Compound Machining Tool Optical Aspherical Mirror Process
Machine Tool 118 3.3 Modeling and Analysis of Removal Function 120 3.3.1
Characteristics of Ideal Removal Function 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Model 121
3.3.3 Experimental Model 122 3.3.4 Figuring Ability Analysis of Removal
Function 124 3.3.5 Modeling and Analysis of the Complex Shape Polishing
Pad's Removal Function 128 3.4 Calculation and Analysis of Dwell Time in
CCOS Technology 136 3.4.1 Pulse Iterative Method Based on Process Time 136
3.4.2 Influence of Convolution Effect on Residual Error 138 3.5 Removal
Function Modeling Under the Edge Effect 147 3.5.1 Pressure Distribution
When the Polishing Pad Out of Edge 148 3.5.2 Removal Function Modeling
Under Edge Effect 152 3.6 Cause and Modification Method of Optical Surface
Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.1 Cause and Evaluation of Optical
Surface Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 157 3.6.2 Full Aperture Uniform
Polishing Correction Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error 159 3.6.3
Deterministic Local Modification Method of Small-Scale Manufacturing Error
173 References 176 4 Ion Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1 Outline of Ion
Beam Figuring Technology 179 4.1.1 Application of Ion Beam Processing
Technology 179 4.1.2 The Basic Mechanism and Character for Optical
Machining by IBF 181 4.1.3 Development of IBF of Optical Mirror 183 4.2
Basic Principle of IBF for Optical Mirror 185 4.2.1 Description of Ion
Sputter Process 185 4.2.2 Material Removal Rate of IBF 188 4.3 Analysis of
Removal Function Model in IBF 199 4.3.1 Theoretical Modeling of Removal
Function in IBF 199 4.3.2 Experiment Analysis of the Removal Function
Character in IBF 203 4.3.3 Experiment Modeling of Removal Function in IBF
208 4.4 IBF System Design and Analysis 210 4.4.1 System Set-Up 210 4.4.2
System Analysis 213 4.5 Micro-Scale Error Evolution During IBF 222 4.5.1
Surface Roughness Evolution 222 4.5.2 Microscopic Morphology Evolution 223
4.6 The Polishing Experiment of IBF 230 4.6.1 Flat Optical Mirror Polishing
Experiment 230 4.6.2 Curved Surface Figuring Experiment 232 References 235
5 Magnetorheological Figuring 237 5.1 Overview of Magnetorheological
Figuring 237 5.1.1 Applications of Magnetorheological Fluid 237 5.1.2
Development of Magnetic-Effect-Assisted Polishing Techniques for Optics 239
5.1.3 Development of Deterministic Magnetorheological Figuring 240 5.2
Mechanism and Mathematical Model of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.1
Mechanism of MRF Material Removal 244 5.2.2 Theoretical Calculation of Load
on Single Abrasive and Indentation Depth 245 5.2.3 Fluid Dynamics Analysis
and Calculation in Polishing 247 5.3 MRF Machine Tools 257 5.3.1 Basic
Requirement on MRF Machine Structure 257 5.3.2 Machine Structure of MRF
Experimental Prototype 258 5.3.3 Design of Upside Down MRF Polishing
Devices 259 5.3.4 MR Fluid Circulation and Control System 263 5.4 MR Fluid
and Its Performance 264 5.4.1 Current Situation of MR Fluid Research 264
5.4.2 Components of MR Fluid and Its Performance 265 5.4.3 Principles on
Choosing MR Fluid Elements 269 5.4.4 Preparation of MR Fluid 272 5.5
Optimization of MRF Processing Parameters 272 5.5.1 Orthogonal Experiments
on MRF Process Parameters 273 5.5.2 Grey Correlation Analysis 276 5.5.3
Parameter Optimization of Multiple Process Indexes 279 5.5.4 Comprehensive
Optimization of Machining Process 280 5.6 MRF Optical Surfacing Technique
and Machining Experiment 280 5.6.1 Algorithm of Dwell Time for Optical MRF
Surfacing 280 5.6.2 MRF Polishing Examples 284 5.7 Magnetorheological Jet
Polishing 294 5.7.1 Overview of Abrasive Jet Polishing 294 5.7.2 MJP
Experiment and Analysis 295 5.7.3 CFD Analysis on MJP Removal Mechanism 298
5.7.4 MJP Polishing Experiments 303 References 304 6 Evaluation of
Deterministic Optical Machining Errors 307 6.1 Introduction 307 6.2 Usual
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors 308 6.2.1 Evaluation
Parameters of Geometrical Accuracy in Optical Machining Process 308 6.2.2
Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on PSD Character Curve
310 6.2.3 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on Scattering
Theory 311 6.2.4 Evaluation Method of Optical Machining Errors Based on
Statistical Optical Theory 311 6.3 Analysis on Distribution Characteristics
of Optical Machining Errors 312 6.3.1 Evaluation and Analysis on Machining
Errors of Any Direction on Optical Surface 312 6.3.2 Evaluation and
Analysis of Local Errors on Optical Surface 319 6.3.3 Influence of
Processing Method on Optical Machining Errors 323 6.4 Scattering Evaluation
of Optical Machining Errors 340 6.4.1 Binary Separation of Frequency Band
for Optical Machining Errors 341 6.4.2 Evaluation Based on Harvey-Shack
Scattering Theory 344 6.4.3 Influence of Optical Machining Errors on
Scattering Properties 348 6.5 Evaluation of Frequency Band Errors Based on
Optical Performance 353 6.5.1 Influence Characteristic of Different
Frequency Errors on Optical Performance 353 6.5.2 Requirement of Frequency
Band Errors in Different Optical Applications 356 6.5.3 Evaluation of
Phi200 mm Paraboloid Mirror Machined by IBF 365 References 370 7
Measurement Technology in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces
373 7.1 Introduction 373 7.1.1 Requirements of Large-Middle Optical
Surfaces 373 7.1.2 Overview of Measurement in Manufacturing of Large-Middle
Optical Surfaces 375 7.2 Principles of Coordinate Measurement Technology in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 376 7.3 Interferometric Null
Test in Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 377 7.3.1 Basic
Principle of Interferometric Null Test 377 7.3.2 Null Test of Large-Middle
Planar and Spherical Surfaces 378 7.3.3 Null Test of Conic Surfaces Using
Conjugates 379 7.3.4 Null Test of Aspheric Surfaces Using Compensators 383
7.3.5 Null Test with Computer Generated Holograms 384 7.4 Non-Null Test in
Manufacturing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 386 7.4.1 Shear
Interferometry 386 7.4.2 Interferometry with High Resolution CCD 386 7.4.3
Sub-Nyquist Interferometry 387 7.4.4 Long-Wavelength Interferometry 387
7.4.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 387 7.5 Phase Retrieval
Technology 388 7.6 Subsurface Quality Assessment 388 References 389 8
Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1 State
of the Art of the Coordinate Measuring Technology of Optical Aspheric
Surface 391 8.1.1 Status and Characteristics of Coordinate Measuring
Technology for Optical Aspheric Surface 391 8.1.2 State of the Art of
Optical Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology and Development Tendency
393 8.2 Large Aperture Aspheric Coordinate Measuring Technology 397 8.2.1
The Design of Coordinate Measuring System 397 8.2.2 The Measurement
Principle of Large Aspheric Coordinate Measuring 405 8.2.3 Analysis and
Evaluation of Optical Aspheric Form Error Based on Multiple Section Line
Measurement 408 8.2.4 Machining Case--Machining and Measuring of Ø500 mm
Aspheric 421 8.3 The Swing Arm Measurement of Large Aspheric 425 8.3.1 The
Analysis of Measuring Principle 425 8.3.2 The Structural Design of
Measuring System 430 8.3.3 The Accuracy Analysis and Modeling of the
Measuring System 431 8.3.4 The Optimization Algorithm for Swing Arm
Profilometry Measuring Aspheric Vertex Curvature Radius 438 8.3.5 The
Simulation of Measurement Algorithm and Measurement Experiments 442
References 446 9 Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1 Introduction
449 9.1.1 Basic Principle of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.1.2
Overview of Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 449 9.2 Fundamentals of
Subaperture Stitching Algorithm 452 9.2.1 Mathematical Model of
Two-Subaperture Stitching 452 9.2.2 Model and Algorithm for Simultaneous
Stitching 453 9.3 Iterative Algorithm for Subaperture Stitching 454 9.3.1
Mathematical Model 455 9.3.2 Iterative Algorithm 460 9.3.3 Coarse-Fine
Stitching Strategy for Large Optical Surfaces 463 9.4 Method for
Subaperture Lattice Design 463 9.4.1 Rough Design of Lattice 464 9.4.2
Calculation of Best-Fit Spheres for Subapertures 467 9.4.3 Simulation and
Verification of Lattice Design 469 9.5 Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.1 Mechanical Configurations of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer
472 9.5.2 Kinematics of Subaperture Stitching Interferometer 474 9.6 Case
Study 477 9.6.1 Large Flats and Planar Wavefronts 477 9.6.2 Spherical
Surfaces 488 9.6.3 Aspheric Surfaces 491 9.7 Future Development of
Subaperture Stitching Interferometry 495 9.7.1 Non-null Subaperture
Stitching Test 496 9.7.2 Null Subaperture Stitching Test 496 9.7.3
Near-Null Subaperture Stitching Test 500 Appendix 9.A Derivation of the
Linearized Configuration Optimization Subproblem 503 Appendix 9.B
Block-Wise QR Decomposition Procedure for Linear LS Problem 506 References
507 10 Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing of Large-Middle Optical Surfaces 511
10.1 Introduction to Phase Retrieval Technology 511 10.1.1 Significance of
Phase Retrieval In Situ Testing 511 10.1.2 Application of Phase Retrieval
Method 512 10.1.3 Theory of Phase Retrieval Algorithm 513 10.2 Basic
Principle and Algorithm for Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.1
Principle of Phase Retrieval Optical Testing 514 10.2.2 Diffraction
Computation for Optical Field Propagation 517 10.2.3 Phase Retrieval
Algorithm for Surface Figure Testing 519 10.3 Phase Retrieval Testing of
Spherical Wavefronts 524 10.3.1 Measurement Setup 524 10.3.2 Measurement of
Large Diameter Spherical Surface 524 10.4 Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing
528 10.4.1 Principle of Subpixel Phase Retrieval Testing 529 10.4.2 Design
of Subpixel Intensity Constraint Function 531 10.4.3 Subpixel Phase
Retrieval Testing Experiments 533 10.5 Aspheric Phase Retrieval 535 10.5.1
Aspheric Departure 535 10.5.2 Characteristic of Aspheric Defocused Field
536 10.5.3 Measurement Plan for Aspheric Phase Retrieval 539 10.5.4
Aspheric Phase Retrieval Algorithm Design 541 10.5.5 Testing of a 170 mm
Aperture Parabolic Surface 543 10.5.6 Phase Retrieval Testing of Aspheres
Using Paraxial Conjugates 547 10.6 High Dynamic Range Phase Retrieval 550
10.6.1 High Dynamic Range Algorithm 550 10.6.2 Parametric Conjugate
Gradient Method 552 10.6.3 Testing of Roughly Polished Surfaces 554 10.7
Phase Retrieval Testing of Off-Axis Aspheric 555 10.7.1 Phase Retrieval
Principle for Off-Axis Aspheric 557 10.7.2 Testing of an Off-Axis
Elliptical Surface 564 References 569 11 Subsurface Damage of Optical
Components in Manufacturing Processes 573 11.1 Compendium of Subsurface
Damage 573 11.1.1 Concept of Subsurface Damage 573 11.1.2 Influence of
Subsurface Damage on the Service Performance of Optical Elements 574 11.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage 575 11.2.1 Production Mechanism
of Subsurface Damage Induced in Grinding and Lapping Processes 575 11.2.2
Production Mechanism of Subsurface Damage Induced in Polishing Process 577
11.3 Measurement Techniques of Subsurface Damage 578 11.3.1 Destructive
Measuring Methods 578 11.3.2 Non-destructive Measuring Methods 586 11.4
Relationship between Subsurface Damage and Surface Roughness of Optical
Materials in Grinding and Lapping Processes 588 11.4.1 Measurement Ratio of
Subsurface Damage Depth to Surface Roughness 589 11.4.2 Theoretical
Analysis with Indentation Fracture Mechanics 591 11.5 Influence of
Machining Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 594 11.5.1 Influence of
Grinding Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 595 11.5.2 Influence of
Lapping Parameters on Subsurface Damage Depth 597 11.6 Polishing Subsurface
Damage and Its Elimination Process 608 11.6.1 Characteristics and
Evaluation of Polishing Subsurface Damage 609 11.6.2 Improvement of Laser
Induced Damage Threshold through the Elimination of Subsurface Damage 611
References 615 Index 617