About the Authors xv
 
List of Contributors xvii
 
Preface xix
 
Acknowledgements xxi
 
List of Abbreviations xxiii
 
Notations xxxi
 
1 Introduction 1
Joaõ Figueiras, Francescantonio Della Rosa and Simone Frattasi
 
1.1 Application Areas of Positioning (Chapter 2) 5
 
1.2 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning (Chapter 3) 5
 
1.3 Fundamentals of Positioning (Chapter 4) 5
 
1.4 Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques (Chapter 5) 6
 
1.5 Fundamentals of Tracking (Chapter 6) 6
 
1.6 Error Mitigation Techniques (Chapter 7) 7
 
1.7 Positioning Systems and Technologies (Chapter 8) 7
 
1.8 Ultrawideband Positioning and Tracking (Chapter 9) 8
 
1.9 Indoor Positioning in WLAN (Chapter 10) 8
 
1.10 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization in RFID Systems (Chapter 11) 9
 
1.11 Cooperative Mobile Positioning (Chapter 12) 9
 
2 Application Areas of Positioning 11
Simone Frattasi
 
2.1 Introduction 11
 
2.2 Localization Framework 11
 
2.3 Location-based Services 13
 
2.3.1 LBS Ecosystem 13
 
2.3.2 Taxonomies 15
 
2.3.3 Context Awareness 26
 
2.3.4 Privacy 29
 
2.4 Location-based Network Optimization 32
 
2.4.1 Radio Network Planning 32
 
2.4.2 Radio Resource Management 32
 
2.5 Patent Trends 35
 
2.6 Conclusions 39
 
3 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning 43
Gilberto Berardinelli and Nicola Marchetti
 
3.1 Introduction 43
 
3.2 Radio Propagation 44
 
3.2.1 Path Loss 45
 
3.2.2 Shadowing 48
 
3.2.3 Small-scale Fading 49
 
3.2.4 Radio Propagation and Mobile Positioning 52
 
3.2.5 RSS-based Positioning 54
 
3.3 Multiple-antenna Techniques 55
 
3.3.1 Spatial Diversity 55
 
3.3.2 Spatial Multiplexing 56
 
3.3.3 Gains Obtained by Exploiting the Spatial Domain 57
 
3.3.4 MIMO and Mobile Positioning 59
 
3.4 Duplexing Methods 59
 
3.4.1 Simplex Systems 59
 
3.4.2 Half-duplex 59
 
3.4.3 Full Duplex 60
 
3.5 Modulation and Multiple-access Techniques 61
 
3.5.1 Modulation Techniques 61
 
3.5.2 Multiple-access Techniques 65
 
3.5.3 OFDMA and Mobile Positioning 67
 
3.6 Radio Resource Management and Mobile Positioning 67
 
3.6.1 Handoff, Channel Reuse and Interference Adaptation 67
 
3.6.2 Power Control 69
 
3.7 Synchronization 70
 
3.7.1 Centralized Synchronization 70
 
3.7.2 Distributed Synchronization 71
 
3.8 Cooperative Communications 72
 
3.8.1 Cooperative MIMO 73
 
3.8.2 Clustering 74
 
3.8.3 Cooperative Routing 75
 
3.8.4 RSS-based Cooperative Positioning 75
 
3.9 Cognitive Radio and Mobile Positioning 75
 
3.10 Conclusions 78
 
4 Fundamentals of Positioning 81
João Figueiras
 
4.1 Introduction 81
 
4.2 Classification of Positioning Infrastructures 81
 
4.2.1 Positioning-system Topology 82
 
4.2.2 Physical Coverage Range 83
 
4.2.3 Integration of Positioning Solutions 84
 
4.3 Types of Measurements and Methods for their Estimation 85
 
4.3.1 Cell ID 85
 
4.3.2 Signal Strength 85
 
4.3.3 Time of Arrival 86
 
4.3.4 Time Difference of Arrival 87
 
4.3.5 Angle of Arrival 88
 
4.3.6 Personal-information Identification 89
 
4.4 Positioning Techniques 89
 
4.4.1 Proximity Sensing 89
 
4.4.2 Triangulation 91
 
4.4.3 Fingerprinting 95
 
4.4.4